LIBRARY 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 


PRESENTED  BY 

ALMA  WILLIAMS 
UCSFB 


PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 


BY 


S.   M.   BARRETT 

PROFESSOR  OF  PEDAGOGY,  CENTRAL  STATE  NORMAL 
SCHOOL,  EDMOND,  OKLA. 


BOSTON,  U.S.A. 

D.   C.   HEATH   &  CO.,   PUBLISHERS 
1911 


COPYRIGHT,  1908, 
BY  S.  M.  BARRETT. 


PREFACE 

THIS  work  is  designed  to  present  in  a  brief,  concise 
manner  a  few  principles  and  rules  of  teaching,  and  to 
discuss  their  application  to  methods  and  management 
in  public  or  common  schools.  Only  such  rules  and 
principles  are  presented  as  the  author  has  been  able  to 
apply  successfully  year  after  year  in  actual  schoolroom 
work.  Necessarily,  therefore,  the  work  is  brief;  but 
it  is  hoped  that  it  is  vitalized  by  the  true  teaching  spirit, 
and  that  being  born  of  experience  it  will  be  of  practical 
value. 

If  this  volume  renders  assistance  to  students  in  normal 
schools  and  training  classes,  to  young  teachers  who 
have  not  received  a  course  of  instruction  in  a  profes- 
sional school,  but  who  are  compelled  to  prepare  them- 
selves by  independent  efforts  for  the  work  of  teaching, 
its  purposes  will  have  been  accomplished. 

S.   M.    BARRETT. 

CENTRAL  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 

EDMOND,  OKLAHOMA. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I  — METHODS 

CHATTBR  PAGE 

I.    IDEATION 3 

II.    THE  RECITATION 9 

III.  READING 19 

IV.  ARITHMETIC 34 

V.    SPELLING 43 

VI.    GEOGRAPHY 48 

VII.    ENGLISH:  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR        ...  58 

VIII.    UNITED  STATES  HISTORY 64 

PART  II  — MANAGEMENT 

IX.    FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES 73 

X.    CLASS  MANAGEMENT 79 

XI.    THE  TEACHER 95 

XII.    PUNISHMENT 106 

XIII.  TEACHING  MAXIMS in 

XIV.  SELF-DIRECTION 119 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 129 


PART   ONE 

METHODS 


PRACTICAL   PEDAGOGY 

CHAPTER  I 

IDEATION 

IN  order  to  secure  the  best  results  from  a  study  of 
methods  of  teaching,  it  is  well  first  to  review  briefly  the 
psychological  processes  by  which  ideas  are  formed,  and 
then  to  hold  these  processes  of  ideation  firmly  in  mind 
as  a  means  by  which  to  determine  the  worth  of  proposed 
methods  of  instruction.  For  that  reason  this  review  of 
the  processes  of  ideation  is  given. 

Sensation.  —  We  shall  begin  with  sensation,  which  is 
the  earliest  and  most  elementary  of  mental  processes 
and  may  be  defined  as  a  mode  of  conscious  experience 
in  the  use  of  an  organ,  or  sense,  of  the  body.  This 
provisional  definition  of  sensation  serves  to  show  that 
a  study  of  elementary  sensation  is  not  of  prime  impor- 
tance in  this  discussion  of  ideation  ;  hence,  the  province 
of  pure  sensation  will  be  overstepped  and  attention 
called  to  the  process  by  which  new  sensations  are  de- 
termined or  modified,  not  only  by  immediate  sensations, 
but  also  by  others  more  remote  in  time.  This  takes  place 
by  the  new  sensation  reexciting  former  sensations. 

3 


4  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

Sensations  are  deepened  by  repetition,  and  the  psy- 
chological importance  of  this  consists  in  the  fact  that 
(the  power  of  reproduction  being  assumed)  it  is  possible 
for  consciousness  to  combine  earlier  with  later  sensa- 
tions or  experiences.  Not  only  is  this  repetition  valuable 
in  deepening  impressions  and  combining  earlier  with 
later  sensations,  but  sometimes  the  influence  of  it, 
coupled  with  memory,  will  call  up  duplicates  of  sensa- 
tions which  otherwise  would  not  rise. 

Percepts.  —  The  recall  of  an  earlier  sensation  or 
experience  does  not  amount  to  an  accurate  and  distinct 
image  of  it,  because  reawakened  sensations  fuse  imme- 
diately with  the  present  sensation  or  sensations,  and 
cannot  be  said  to  stand  out  as  free  and  independent 
representations,  but  rather  to  undergo  an  involuntary 
recognition.  This  immediate  and  involuntary  recogni- 
tion and  fusing  is  called  perception,  and  we  may  describe 
this  psychological  process  of  perception  as  the  fusing 
of  a  reproduction  and  an  actual  sensation.  The  result, 
a  percept t  is  therefore  compounded  out  of  representation 
and  sensation  without  the  representation  coming  into 
consciousness  as  a  free  or  independent  factor.  Sensa- 
tions fuse  only  in  case  of  similarity  of  the  present  and 
former  sensations,  and  the  more  frequently  this  act  is 
performed,  the  more  easily  and  quickly  will  former  sen- 
sations be  recognized  and  percepts  formed.  The  more 
percepts  of  a  given  subject  are  formed  in  the  mind,  the 
more  permanent  and  valuable  the  result. 


IDEATION  5 

Memory  Images.  —  From  these  percepts  united  with 
other  sensations  and  other  percepts  come  free  ideas  or 
memory  images,  and  the  more  numerous  the  free  ideas 
or  memory  images,  the  more  there  is  formed  in  con- 
sciousness an  independent  field  of  free  ideas  or  memory 
images  which  confront  with  more  or  less  independence 
all  sensations  and  percepts  that  may  arise  from  imme- 
diate environment.  This  field  of  memory  images  enables 
the  mind  properly  to  classify  and  fully  recognize  all 
new  sensations,  images,  and  percepts  that  may  be  pre- 
sented. These  free  ideas  combat  new  ideas  in  such  a 
way  as  to  subject  them  to  strict  analysis,  which  may 
result  in  adoption,  modification,  or  rejection. 

Thus  we  have  in  our  minds  two  distinct  currents  of 
thought,  one  the  modified,  rising  from  immediate  envi- 
ronment, and  the  other  the  free,  rising  from  representa- 
tion. We  cannot  completely  isolate  ourselves  from 
the  external  or  immediate  ones,  because  sensations  are 
received  at  every  instant,  even  when  we  are  principally 
occupied  with  free  ideas.  One  of  these  currents  might 
be  called  the  ascending  current  in  the  mind,  and  the 
other  the  horizontal.  Equilibrium  can  never,  by  the 
very  nature  of  the  case,  be  established  between  these 
two  opposing  currents.  Frequently  by  our  own  will  we 
abandon  ourselves  almost  completely  to  the  one  or  the 
other  of  these  currents  of  thought,  —  as  to  immediate 
sensation  when  listening  to  music,  and,  again,  to  repre- 
sentation when  concentrating  our  mind  upon  a  book 
or  lesson. 


6  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

Sometimes  the  attention  (which  may  be  defined  as 
inhibition  of  all  impressions  and  memory  images  except 
those  to  which  the  mind  is  directed,  or  as  "  intensified 
consciousness")  can  be  directed  almost  wholly  to  one 
of  these  trends  of  thought.  At  other  times  the  atten- 
tion vibrates  from  one  to  the  other,  and  we  have  the 
so-called  divided  attention.  But  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  attention  is  necessary  in  all  the  processes  of 
ideation.  Attention,  however,  is  never  absolute,  but 
merely  relative.  The  process  of  attention  is,  therefore, 
the  relative  inhibition  of  one  or  the  other  of  these  two 
currents  of  thought,  the  modified  or  the  free.  Both  ele- 
ments or  currents  are  present  in  every  state  of  con- 
sciousness, but  with  different  degrees  of  strength.  In 
some  moments  we  are  almost  wholly  under  the  control 
of  sensation  and  perception ;  in  others,  of  reflection  and 
deep  thought;  but  never  are  we  under  the  control  of 
both  at  the  same  time. 

Concepts. — The  process  of  associating  or  fusing  the 
common  properties  of  images  and  percepts  is  called  con- 
ception, and  the  result  a  concept,  which  is  the  finished 
product  in  the  process  of  ideation.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  in  order  to  obtain  a  valuable  concept  it 
is  necessary  to  have  a  predominant  interest,  so  that 
the  attention  may  be  firmly  directed  to  such  images 
and  percepts  as  are  employed  in  forming  the  concept ; 
also  that  the  concept  may  be  vivid  rather  than  indis- 
tinct. 


IDEATION  7 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  elements  in  ideation  are 
arranged  as  follows  :  first,  sensations  ;  second,  percepts  ; 
third,  mental  images,  or  free  ideas ;  fourth,  a  concept, 
The  first  three  processes,  sensation,  perception,  and  the 
forming  of  memory  images,  should  be  experienced  many 
times,  and  each  of  the  four  processes  should  be  per- 
formed with  close  attention  if  the  final  result  —  the  con- 
cept, which  is  to  become  a  permanent  mental  equipment 
— is  to  be  of  much  value. 


If  these  principles  are  applied  to  schoolroom  work, 
the  absolute  necessity  of  performing  these  processes  in 
the  order  given  should  be  obvious.  To  illustrate  :  if  a 
child  undertakes  to  form  a  concept  from  one  memory 
image,  he  might  only  make  the  mistake  that  the  little 
son  of  a  chaplain  of  a  penitentiary  made.  As  this  five- 
year-old  boy  was  finishing  looking  through  an  elemen- 


8  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

tary  book,  he  came  to  the  picture  of  a  zebra  and  said, 
"  Mamma,  here  is  a  convict  mule !  "  He  had  formed 
but  one  percept  and  had  but  one  memory  image  of  indi- 
viduals in  stripes,  and  whatever  wore  stripes  it  seemed 
to  him  must  be  a  convict;  hence,  his  formation  of  an 
imperfect  and  immature  concept.  He  had  not  had 
enough  repetitions  of  sensations  and  percepts  ;  hence,  the 
concept  was  not  in  accordance  with  psychological  prin- 
ciples and  was  unreliable. 

Numerous  other  illustrations  might  be  added  to  show 
the  correctness  of  these  statements  concerning  the 
essential  processes  of  ideation ;  but  since  this  work  is  in- 
tended primarily  for  teachers,  those  who  have  some 
knowledge  of  psychology,  it  is  not  thought  necessary. 

Those  who  undertake  to  teach  should  hold  in  mind 
the  processes  of  ideation  and  see  to  it  that  their  methods 
of  instruction  do  not  violate  these  psychological  princi- 
ples. 

Perception  supplies  raw  material,  conception  elaborates  crude 
percepts  into  finished  concepts.  Percepts  must  be,  in  order  that 
concepts  may  be.  Here  we  find  the  key  to  correct  teaching. 

— Joseph  Baldwin. 

Percepts  are  stored  in  memory,  and  from  this  accumulated  store 
we  draw  as  we  need.  Out  of  percepts  we  build  concepts ;  but  per- 
cepts themselves  give  us  many  of  our  keenest  pleasures  and  purest 
delights,  as  in  the  colors  of  a  sunset  sky,  or  an  October  forest,  or  in 
the  blending  of  musical  tones.  — Ruric  N.  Roark. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  RECITATION 

Mental  Growth.  —  It  is  usually  true  that  a  student's 
advancement  will  be  in  proportion  to  his  diligence  in 
study,  and  this  is  what  we  naturally  expect.  But  there 
have  always  been  enough  instances  of  successful  men 
who  were  poor  students  to  keep  some  excellent  people 
explaining,  and  to  afford  great  comfort  to  indolent  and 
conceited  pupils  who  want  the  reward  of  hard  work 
without  being  willing  to  do  the  work.  Then  there  are, 
in  every  community,  people  who  have  no  aspiration  for 
mental  or  moral  improvement.  Their  feeling  toward 
all  that  is  above  them  is  one  of  envy  and  hate,  with  no 
ambition  to  attain  this  excellence  themselves. 

If  then  we  desire  to  promote  mental  growth,  let  us 
try  to  apprehend  clearly  the  conditions  and  the  means 
of  this  growth.  There  are  certain  processes  of  devel- 
opment which  go  on  in  us  unconsciously.  This  passive 
growth  is  no  more  credit  to  us  than  our  increase  in 
stature  or  avoirdupois.  Such  growth,  however,  never 
raised  any  person  above  mediocrity.  The  growth  that 
leads  to  real  excellence  is  always  accompanied  with 
conscious  effort. 

Intellectual  growth  requires  first,  a  consciousness  of 
one's  need  of  growth  ;  and  second,  a  consciousness  of  one's 

9 


10  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

capacity  for  growth.  There  are  some  people  who  feel 
no  need  of  improvement;  they  are  self-complacent  in 
the  belief  that  they  are  already  great.  And  there  are 
some  people  whose  sluggish  and  benighted  minds  never 
discover  their  own  ignorance  and  feebleness.  It  is  only 
as  one  realizes  his  need  that  we  can  hope  for  his 
improvement. 

Many  who  are  conscious  of  their  need  distrust  their 
capacity  for  growth.  Faith  in  ourselves,  in  the  ca- 
pacity of  our  faculties  to  respond  to  the  demands  that 
will  be  made  upon  them,  is  no  less  essential  than  the 
consciousness  of  our  need  of  improvement.  It  is  safe 
to  say  that  no  one  ever  attained  to  eminence  who  did 
not  have  a  definite  knowledge  of  his  need  of  improve- 
ment and  unbounded  courage  to  follow  out  his  plans 
for  development.  Pupils  develop  their  powers  by  over- 
coming the  difficulties  which  confront  them.  They  that 
are  over-confident  neglect  the  preparation  necessary  to 
success.  But  they  that  are  self -distrustful  cannot  rouse 
their  powers  to  their  fullest  exertion,  and  are  apt  to 
yield  to  difficulties  that  might  be  overcome.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  teacher  to  show  the  over-confident  the  need 
of  preparation  and  to  encourage  the  self-distrustful 
to  undertake  greater  things. 

In  earlier  childhood  great  dependence  should  be 
placed  on  the  elementary  processes  of  ideation — gath- 
ering from  immediate  sensation  ;  but  with  more  ad- 
vanced pupils  the  use  of  representation  —  free  ideas  or 
mental  images  —  may  be  more  fully  relied  upon.  In 


THE  RECITATION  II 

every  instance  vigorous  effort  toward  a  definite  aim 
should  be  the  rule,  and  the  teacher  should  never  lose 
sight  of  the  fact  that  the  recitation  is  for  the  benefit  of 
the  pupil ;  hence,  the  pupils,  not  the  teacher,  should  do 
the  reciting. 

The  application  of  the  principles  of  mental  growth  to 
schoolroom  instruction  is  essentially  a  study  of  the 
recitation,  and  hence  is  of  vital  importance.  We  shall 
therefore  discuss  in  detail  the  different  steps  in  the 
recitation,  which  are  as  follows: — 

a.  Preparation. 

b.  Presentation. 
e.    Association. 

d.  Recapitulation. 

e.  Application. 

Preparation.  —  The  assignment  of  the  next  lesson 
should  usually  be  at  the  beginning  of  the  recitation. 
Frequently  it  is  not  assigned  until  the  end,  and  then 
in  the  hurry  the  teacher  says,  "Take  the  next  two 
pages,"  or,  "  Take  the  next  lesson,"  and  the  pupils  go  to 
their  seats  without  any  definite  idea  of  what  is  expected 
of  them  and  they  become  discouraged  in  their  prepara- 
tion. A  few  words  of  wise  discussion  and  instruction 
from  the  teacher  at  the  time  when  the  lesson  is  assigned 
would  enable  the  pupils  to  proceed  intelligently  with 
their  work.  It  should  always  be  a  part  of  the  assign- 
ment of  the  new  lesson  to  call  attention  to  essentials ; 
to  point  out  special  difficulties ;  and  to  give  the  neces- 


12  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

sary  suggestions  as  to  method  of  study.  If  the  lessons 
are  thus  properly  assigned,  the  pupils  will  not  only 
know  what  the  task  is,  but  will  also  know  how  to  accom- 
plish it. 

Not  only  is  it  important  that  the  assignment  should 
make  plain  what  is  to  be  learned  and  how  the  work  is 
to  be  accomplished,  but  the  programme  and  the  manage- 
ment of  the  school  should  be  so  arranged  that  a  pupil 
will  not  be  allowed  to  turn  from  one  lesson  to  another 
at  every  impulse.  "  A  place  for  everything  and  every- 
thingin  its  place;"  also  "  One  thing at  a  time  and  that  the 
right  thing"  are  appropriate  mottoes  for  study  periods 
in  the  schoolroom.  This  would  tend  to  prevent  pupils 
from  studying  in  a  desultory  manner  and  would  insure 
honest  and  systematic  effort  on  their  part  in  preparing 
lessons. 

It  is  not  the  length  of  time  spent  on  the  lesson,  but 
the  intensity  of  the  work,  that  counts.  Therefore  it  is 
important  that  the  pupils  know  the  value  of  concentra- 
tion in  the  preparation  of  any  and  all  lessons.  They 
should  be  trained  to  bend  their  whole  energies  to  the 
task  at  hand. 

Presentation.  —  When  a  pupil  is  called  upon  to  recite, 
he  should  feel  that  this  is  his  opportunity  to  express 
himself,  and  the  teacher  should  see  to  it  that  the  pupil 
does  express  himself  and  not  repeat  the  words  of  the 
author  in  a  meaningless,  mechanical  manner.  To  be 
sure  that  the  pupil  has  expressed  himself  the  teacher 


THE  RECITATION  13 

should  require  frequent  illustrations;  in  fact,  illustration 
rather  than  definition  should  be  the  rule.  It  has  been 
said  that  an  ounce  of  illustration  is  better  than  a  pound 
of  definition. 

It  would  be  valueless  for  the  teacher  to  proceed  in 
conducting  a  recitation  without  the  attention  of  the 
whole  class.  "  Yes  "  and  "  No  "  questions,  so  frequently 
asked,  are  usually  void  of  any  power  to  stimulate 
thought.  Questions  should,  of  course,  be  simple  and 
clear,  so  as  to  leave  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil  as 
to  what  the  teacher  means,  and  they  should  also  be 
given  in  logical  sequence  so  as  to  prevent  any  confu- 
sion in  the  child's  mind ;  but  these  questions  should  be 
the  outgrowth  of  the  teacher's  fuller  knowledge  of  the 
subject  and  not  stereotyped  text-book  questions.  Under 
no  condition  should  the  teacher  do  the  reciting.  The 
only  time  at  which  the  teacher  should  do  the  talking  is 
when  the  pupils  have  expressed  all  they  know  of  the 
subject  and  all  that  they  could  be  reasonably  expected 
to  know.  Then,  and  not  until  then,  may  the  teacher 
offer  some  added  suggestions  to  throw  new  light  on  the 
subject. 

Association.  —  Again  and  again  the  teacher  will  find 
it  necessary  to  bring  the  new  and  the  old  ideas  into 
relation  that  they  may  become  assimilated  and  familiar. 
The  field  of  free  ideas  in  the  child's  mind  will  help  him 
to  identify  all  new  percepts,  but  the  teacher  must  be 
sure  by  associating  the  unknown  with  the  known  that 


14  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

the  child's  mind  performs  this  process  correctly.  Only 
by  repetition  and  drill  in  a  variety  of  methods,  by 
numerous  devices,  illustrations,  and  careful  question- 
ing, can  the  teacher  know  that  this  process  has  been 
accomplished. 

Recapitulation.  —  When  the  pupil  can  restate  the 
whole  theme  of  his  lesson  in  a  summary,  the  lesson  has 
been  well  learned.  The  best  way  to  train  children  to 
acquire  this  power  is  to  require  them  to  state  the  princi- 
pal thoughts  that  have  been  brought  out  in  a  recitation. 
The  teacher  should  not  direct  by  asking  suggestive 
questions,  but  should  require  the  pupil  to  make  the 
selection  of  important  topics  and  to  discuss  them  in  the 
order  in  which  they  occur  in  the  lesson.  In  this  work 
the  teacher  should  be  careful  that  the  readier  pupils  do 
not  trespass  upon  the  rights  of  the  slower  ones  and 
cheat  them  out  of  their  opportunity.  Each  pupil  should 
be  held  severally  responsible  for  every  important  point 
made  during  the  recitation,  and  should  understand  that 
he  is  required  to  give  an  account  of  it  when  called  upon 
without  being  guided  by  suggestive  questions  from  the 
teacher. 

Application.  — The  final  purpose,  of  course,  is  to  apply 
the  knowledge  gained  to  everyday  life ;  to  bring  school 
life  into  touch  with  everyday  duties;  to  find  in  the 
home  the  practical  application  of  the  themes  treated  in 
school.  The  cultural  and  the  practical  should  be  brought 
into  complete  harmony. 


THE  RECITATION  1$ 

Occupational  Education.  —  It  is  evident  that  the  trend 
in  education  is  now  toward  the  useful,  but  this  does  not 
in  any  way  imply  that  the  tendency  is  away  from  the 
cultural.  It  implies  simply  that  true  culture  may  be  ob- 
tained from  practical  as  well  as  from  obsolete  subjects. 
This  tendency  toward  what  we  shall  term  occupational 
education  may  be  illustrated  by  familiar  examples,  and 
the  conclusions  drawn  will  then  be  forcibly  impressed. 

For  instance,  if  we  asserted  that  teachers  should 
receive  normal  (occupational)  training ;  that  physicians 
and  lawyers  should  have  professional  (occupational) 
training;  or  that  ministers  should  be  trained  for  the 
ministry  (occupational)  training,  no  one  would  deny  it. 
The  same  line  of  reasoning  will  lead  us  to  assert  that 
the  farmer,  the  mechanic,  the  housewife,  —  in  fact, 
persons  entering  any  occupation, — should,  in  addition  to 
the  usual  cultural  knowledge  gained  in  school,  receive 
some  rudimentary  occupational  education  to  fit  them 
better  for  their  life  work. 

A  part  of  this  result  can  be  obtained  if  the  teacher  is 
tactful  enough  to  apply  the  knowledge  gained  in  the 
schools  to  such  occupations  as  predominate  in  the  com- 
munity in  which  he  teaches.  To  illustrate :  in  a  com- 
mercial center,  when  supplementary  work  is  given  in 
arithmetic,  let  it  be  calculations  from  the  trades  of  the 
commercial  world.  In  an  agricultural  community  let  it 
be  calculations  from  the  farm  life,  and  always  let  there 
be  calculations  from  the  household.  Not  only  may  these 
applications  be  made  in  a  study  of  arithmetic,  but  added 


i6 


PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 


material  may  be  brought  to  each  subject,  and  this  added 
material  used  to  illustrate  and  verify.  By  so  doing  the 
pupils  will  be  better  prepared  for  the  various  occupa- 
tions which  they  will  enter. 

Questioning.  —  Socrates,  the  greatest  questioner  of  the 
ages,  sought  to  lead  persons  to  see  the  defects  of  their 
own  definitions  or  statements.  The  Socratic  method  of 
teaching  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  example :  — 

Meno.  Socrates,  we  come  to  you  feeling  strong  and 
wise ;  we  leave  you  feeling  helpless  and  ignorant.  Why 
is  this? 

Socrates.  I  will  show  you  (calling  up  a  young  Greek 
and  making  a  line  in  the  sand).  Boy,  how  long  is  this 
line  ?  


Boy. 

Soc. 
Boy. 
Soc. 


It  is  a  foot  long,  sir. 
How  long  is  this  line  ? 
It  is  two  feet  long,  sir. 


How  much  larger  would  be  the  square  con- 
structed on  the  second  line  than  on  the  first  line  ? 

Boy.     It  would  be  twice  as  large,  sir. 

Under  the  direction  of  the  boy,  Socrates  constructs 
two  squares  in  the  sand,  thus :  — 


THE   RECITATION  17 

Soc.  How  much  larger  than  the  first  did  you  say 
the  second  square  would  be  ? 

Boy.     I  said  it  would  be  twice  as  large. 

Soc.     But  how  much  larger  is  it  ? 

Boy.     It  is  four  times  as  large. 

Soc.  Thank  you,  my  boy,  you  may  go.  Meno,  that 
boy  came  to  me  full  of  confidence,  thinking  himself 
wise.  I  told  him  nothing.  By  a  few  simple  questions 
I  led  him  to  see  his  errors  and  discover  the  truth. 
Though  really  wiser,  he  goes  away  feeling  humbled. 

This  is  the  method  which  practical  teachers  of  to-day 
use  —  leading,  by  judicious  questions,  the  young  pupil 
to  discover  his  own  errors. 

Questions,  whether  oral  or  written,  should  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  bring  out  what  the  pupil  knows  and  how 
he  knows  it,  and  to  test  his  statements  thoroughly. 

In  oral  questioning  a  good  plan  is  to  propound  the 
question  and  then  designate  the  pupil  who  is  to  recite. 
It  is  well  to  form  a  habit  of  asking  a  question  but  once ; 
for  to  repeat  the  question  is  to  cultivate  or  allow  inatten- 
tion in  the  recitation,  which  is  one  of  the  worst  possible 
faults. 

Non-reciting  pupils  should  never  be  allowed  to  ask 
questions  while  the  teacher  is  conducting  a  recitation. 
Their  wants  can  be  attended  to  after  the  recitation  is 
finished.  Nothing  should  come  between  the  teacher 
and  the  reciting  pupils. 

It  is  well  to  encourage  pupils  to  ask  questions  when 


18  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

there  is  a  point  in  the  lesson  that  they  cannot  under- 
stand, or  when  they  desire  more  information  than  the 
text  furnishes.  But  they  should  not  be  allowed  to 
waste  the  time  of  the  recitation  with  unnecessary  or 
unimportant  questions. 


A  good  recitation  is  one  of  the  best  tests  of  the  pupil's  moral 
character.  It  gives  him  an  opportunity  to  describe  himself. 

—  William  T.  Harris. 

Give  laggards  and  dullards  a  chance.  After  a  pupil  has  made 
two  or  three  failures  call  on  another  pupil  to  do  the  work,  but  do  not 
forget  to  give  the  one  who  made  the  failure  another  trial. 

— /.  N.  Patrick. 

Good  methods  of  teaching  are  important,  but  they  cannot  supply 
the  want  of  ability  in  the  teacher.  The  Socratic  method  is  good,  but 
a  Socrates  behind  the  teacher's  desk  to  ask  questions  is  better. 

—  Thomas  M.  Ballitt. 


CHAPTER   III 

READING 

THE  mental  processes  involved  in  reading  and  the 
consequent  nature  of  the  problems  which  its  teaching 
presents  form  the  content  of  this  chapter.  The  men- 
tal processes  in  reading  are  discussed  only  in  so  far 
as  methods  of  teaching  will  influence  the  learner.  To 
the  child  it  makes  little  difference  what  the  mental  pro- 
cesses are  or  whether  he  understands  these  processes; 
but  to  the  teacher  these  processes  determine  what  is 
correct  and  what  is  incorrect  in  methods  of  teaching 
this  subject. 

Psychology  of  Reading.  —  The  understanding  of 
speech  is  gained  through  a  process  of  trial  and  error, 
the  concepts  being  corrected  and  thoroughly  established 
through  frequent  exemplification,  and  also  through  use 
in  repeated,  persistent  practice.  When  a  child  enters 
school  he  has  relatively  few  concepts  of  word  sounds 
and  no  concepts  of  conventional  word  symbols.  He 
has,  however,  a  working  vocabulary  of  several  hundred 
words,  the  use  of  which  he  knows.  The  first  step  in  the 
task  of  teaching  reading  is  to  familiarize  the  child  with 
these  same  words  in  their  written  and  printed  forms. 

19 


20  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

The  mastery  of  the  system  of  conventional  symbols 
in  which  written  language  consists  is  somewhat  compli- 
cated by  the  fact  that  the  ideas  for  which  many  of  the 
words  stand  are  only  partly  known,  so  that  the  young 
reader  is  confronted  with  a  world  of  realities  as  well  as 
with  an  unfamiliar  set  of  signs.  Translating  the  written 
symbols  into  mental  images  creates  friction  in  the  child's 
mind ;  hence,  the  selection  of  reading  matter  should  be 
from  elements  that  are  already  familiar  to  the  child, 
so  that  as  nearly  as  possible  his  whole  attention  may 
be  given  to  fixing  in  mind  the  relation  between  the  sym- 
bol and  that  for  which  it  stands. 

The  means  by  which  this  task  must  be  accomplished 
consists  in  the  child's  possession  of  oral  speech,  which 
enables  him  to  translate  the  printed  symbols  directly 
into  significant  terms.  It  is  this  which  differentiates 
learning  to  read  from  the  acquisition  of  speech  itself. 
In  the  earliest  processes  the  child  sets  out  with  no  such 
interpretive  basis,  but  has  to  discover  the  meaning  of 
each  sound  or  each  combination  of  sounds  from  the 
situation  in  which  they  are  uttered  and  from  the  action 
with  which  they  are  associated.  After  the  child  has 
mastered  oral  speech,  learning  name  words  is  compara- 
tively easy,  but  there  still  remains  this  difficulty :  that 
in  becoming  conventional  and  abstract  any  logical  rela- 
tion between  the  sound  and  the  thing  signified  vanishes, 
and  the  child  must  ask  and  be  told  the  meaning  of  each 
term. 

The  only  modification  of  this  rule  is  embodied  in  the 


READING  21 

phonetic  method  by  which  the  translation  of  any  written 
combination  into  its  auditory  equivalent  is  performed 
according  to  definite  rules.  If  our  language  were  log- 
ically constructed,  such  a  method  would  be  of  utmost 
value;  but  the  value  of  this  most  excellent  method  is 
restricted  in  its  application  in  proportion  to  the  phonetic 
irregularities  of  the  English  language. 

The  several  steps  in  the  formal  teaching  of  reading 
are  usually  enumerated  as  follows  :  — 

First.  Word  mastery  —  recognizing  a  whole  word  in 
one  mental  effort. 

Second.  Sight  reading,  or  recognizing  and  calling  at 
sight  short  sentences  as  wholes. 

Third.    Getting  the  sense  from  the  printed  page. 

Fourth.    Interpreting,  or  oral  expression. 

To  these  we  shall  add  another,  — 

Fifth.  Creating  and  fostering  a  taste  for  good  litera- 
ture. 

First  Step.  —  In  this  step  the  object  should  be  asso- 
ciated with  the  word  until  the  recalling  of  one  suggests 
the  other.  Concepts  are  represented  by  words,  —  by 
common  nouns,  —  but  these  words  are  meaningless  un- 
less they  awaken  in  the  mind  of  the  child  correspond- 
ing mental  images  or  concepts  already  acquired.  It  is 
impossible  to  teach  words  that  do  not  symbolize  ideas 
already  in  the  mind  of  the  child.  The  teacher  cannot 
give  pupils  ideas.  Instruction  can  only  awaken  and 
enlarge  what  the  mind  has  already  acquired  by  its  own 


22  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

activity.     The  clear  recognition  of  these  psychological 
facts  is  the  beginning  of  success  in  teaching  reading. 

Charts  containing  pictures  of  familiar  objects,  and, 
where  possible,  the  objects  themselves,  are  invaluable 
aids  in  associating  words  and  ideas.  Teachers  should 
be  in  no  hurry  to  get  pupils  to  reading  in  the  formal 
classes,  but,  rather,  patiently  train  them  to  see  the  many 
things  in  the  pictures  or  in  the  objects;  then  require 
them  to  tell  what  they  see. 

Words  are  learned  in  their  written  and  printed  forms 
that  they  may  be  used  in  these  forms.  Each  word 
taken  up  should  be  practically  mastered  on  the  day  that 
it  is  taken  up,  so  that  ever  afterward  it  will  be  instantly 
recognized  at  sight  by  the  child  and  he  will  be  impelled 
to  pronounce  it  properly  and  promptly.  The  proper 
mastery  of  a  word  means  further  that  the  sight  of  the 
word  instantly  calls  into  the  child's  mind  the  object  or 
quality  or  act  which  the  word  represents. 

Mechanical  word  mastery  comes  first  in  the  steps  to 
be  taken  in  the  teaching  of  reading,  because  it  makes 
possible  the  succeeding  steps.  Nearly  all  the  words 
found  in  the  first  reader  are  words  that  are  already  used 
by  the  child  in  his  oral  vocabulary. 

Teachers  should  apply  the  sentence  method  with  the 
words  learned  as  soon  as  possible.  The  object  of  this 
is  to  do  away  with  mere  word  calling.  The  blackboard 
is  perhaps  the  best  means  of  introducing  the  sentence 
method,  for  by  it  pupils  may  be  early  trained  to  see 
words  in  groups.  This  may  be  done  by  placing  the 


READING  33 

sentence  on  the  blackboard  and  asking  the  pupils  to 
see  what  it  says  ;  then  erasing  the  sentence  and  having 
them  tell  what  they  read. 

Second  Step.  —  This  step  in  reading  is  simply  an  ex- 
tension of  the  first  process  of  substituting  sentences  for 
words  in  sight  recognition.  Pupils,  of  course,  should 
recognize  the  words  which  they  learned  in  the  first 
process ;  but  there  are  always  new  words  in  the  lessons, 
so  that  the  first  step  is  necessarily  continued  while  the 
second  step  is  in  process.  Sometimes  when  children 
are  learning  to  read,  they  hesitate  to  pronounce  the 
words.  When  this  is  the  case,  it  is  evident  that  they 
are  not  reading,  but  have  fallen  back  to  the  first  step  and 
are  applying  all  their  powers  to  recognizing  the  words. 
In  such  cases  the  preparation  has  not  been  sufficient. 
Pupils  should  not  attempt  to  read  a  lesson  aloud  until 
all  the  new  words  and  new  ideas  have  been  studied  and 
mastered  so  that  they  will  see  a  sentence  in  one  mental 
effort,  just  as  in  the  beginning  they  learned  to  see  a 
whole  word  in  one  mental  effort.  In  these  earlier  steps 
of  reading  quality  should  be  sought  rather  than  quantity, 
and  it  should  be  ever  borne  in  mind  that  correct  expres- 
sion depends  upon  correct  interpretation. 

Third  Step  :  Getting  the  sense  from  the  printed  page. 
—  Pupils  should  understand  the  subject  of  the  lesson 
before  they  attempt  to  read  it  aloud,  but  the  only 
means  by  which  the  teacher  may  know  that  the  pupils 


24  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

understand  the  subject  is  by  having  them  state  the  con- 
tent of  the  lesson  before  reading  it.  Each  lesson  should 
be  studied  by  the  pupils  and  the  teacher,  and  discussed 
by  the  pupils  in  class,  so  that  it  may  be  known  that  this 
step  has  been  performed  before  reading  aloud  is  under- 
taken. This  step  is  one  which  in  the  main  the  pupils 
must  make  alone.  The  teacher  should,  however,  give 
proper  instruction  for  preparation,  and  then  before 
allowing  the  pupils  to  recite,  find  out  that  the  prepara- 
tion has  been  made.  When  pupils  read  without  a  good 
understanding  of  what  they  are  saying,  the  recitation  is 
valueless. 

Fourth  Step:  Interpreting,  or  oral  expression.  —  In 
this  step  there  are  few  important  preliminaries  that  it  is 
safe  to  omit.  Pupils  who  are  reading  aloud  should 
stand  or  sit  in  correct  position  in  order  that  the  respira- 
tory organs  may  have  free,  easy,  and  natural  action. 
They  should  be  taught  to  inhale  and  to  exhale  so  as  to 
economize  breath  in  reading  and  convert  it  into  sound. 
They  should  hold  their  books  at  a  correct  distance  from 
the  face  and  in  such  a  position  that  both  eyes  may  see 
the  words  at  the  same  visual  angle. 

The  human  voice  is  an  instrument  of  wonderful  power 
and  is  susceptible  of  great  improvement;  therefore  it 
is  necessary  that  in  all  these  exercises  the  voice  and 
all  of  the  organs  controlling  the  voice  should  be  devel- 
oped in  a  rational  manner.  In  order  to  teach  reading 
properly  the  teacher  must  know  what  are  pure  tones  of 


READING  25 

the  voice  and  must  understand  and  apply  the  most  im- 
portant principles  of  voice  culture  to  insure  in  the  pupils 
proper  cultivation  of  the  voice. 

Since  few  pupils  attend  school  more  than  a  few  years, 
it  is  very  important  to  urge  the  necessity  for  correct 
instruction  early  in  life,  and  especially  so  in  teaching 
reading  to  primary  classes.  In  all  of  this  instruction 
the  teacher  should  remember  that  the  pupil  in  after  life 
must  help  himself,  and  that  reading  is  a  foundation 
study  and  its  importance  not  to  be  lost  sight  of  for  one 
moment.  Upon  correct  reading  —  getting  the  sense 
from  what  is  printed  or  written  —  depends  every  other 
scholastic  acquisition. 

Since  pupils  cannot  properly  express  what  they  do  not 
thoroughly  understand,  the  teacher  should  instruct  them 
in  the  use  of  the  dictionary  and  require  them  to  refer  to 
it  day  after  day  until  finding  the  meaning  of  every 
word  in  the  lesson  before  attempting  to  read  becomes  a 
fixed  habit.  By  this  means  it  is  possible  to  get  pupils  to 
read  with  understanding  and  feeling. 

Fifth  Step.  —  Creating  and  fostering  a  taste  for  good 
literature  requires  a  knowledge  of  authors  and  of  their 
works  as  well  as  exercise  in  interpreting  thought.  This 
training  is  usually  deferred  until  pupils  enter  the  high 
school,  but  since  only  about  one  tenth  of  our  pupils  ever 
enter  high  school,  it  is  quite  evident  that  this  training 
should  be  begun  in  the  grades.  Reading,  therefore, 
should  include  the  imparting  of  a  knowledge  of  good 


26  PRACTICAL   PEDAGOGY 

literature  and  the  creating  and  fostering  of  a  love 
for  it. 

If,  then,  to  accomplish  our  full  purpose  in  teaching 
reading  we  must  create  and  foster  a  love  for  good  litera- 
ture, it  is  incumbent  upon  us  to  impart  at  least  a  cursory 
knowledge  of  the  best  authors  and  also  to  cultivate  in 
each  pupil  some  power  to  judge  of  literary  values.  The 
latter  is  most  important,  because  no  one  can  know  what 
authors  are  to  come  prominently  before  the  reading 
public,  and  it  is  ever  necessary  to  select  only  the  best 
from  the  great  writers.  Pupils  do  not  select  inferior 
literature  for  their  home  reading  because  of  any  inherent 
sin  of  humanity,  but  simply  because  they  have  not  been 
taught  to  know  the  excellent  and  have,  therefore,  through 
ignorance,  chosen  the  inferior.  This  is  a  reading  age, 
and  our  pupils  will  always  be  influenced  by  thoughts 
from  the  printed  page.  We  should  be  almost  as  anx- 
ious to  have  pupils  read  good  books  as  to  have  them 
keep  good  company,  for  aside  from  the  company  they 
keep  no  factor  will  so  much  determine  their  character 
as  the  quality  of  books  they  read.  A  reader  of  good 
books  is  always  in  good  company,  and  is  thus  fortified 
against  the  majority  of  temptations  that  beset  him 
through  life. 

Good  books  are  such  books  as  teach  forcibly  some 
principle  or  principles  of  right.  Bad  books  are  those 
the  teachings  of  which  are  in  conflict  with  morality. 
Books  that  simply  entertain,  but  may  not  be  classed  as 
either  positively  good  or  positively  bad,  are  not  worth 


READING  J/ 

reading.  Good  books  stimulate  the  mind  and  con- 
science, bad  books  poison  them,  and  negative  books 
only  make  the  mind  weary. 

The  prevalent  erroneous  idea  that  only  those  having 
academic  or  higher  educational  training  should  be 
trained  to  judge  of  literary  values,  would  lead  to  a  con- 
dition wherein  not  more  than  one  tenth  of  our  people 
would  know  what  to  read  or  have  the  ability  to  appre- 
ciate good  literature.  If  such  results  are  to  come  from 
the  work  of  the  public  schools,  we  should  close  the 
doors,  drive  out  the  teachers  and  put  them  to  manual 
labor. 

A  good  way  to  accomplish  this  fifth  step  is  by  con- 
trolling as  nearly  as  possible  the  general  reading  of  all 
the  pupils  of  the  school.  In  order  to  do  this  the 
teacher  should  occasionally  take  a  list  of  the  various 
books  recently  read  by  the  pupils,  and  speak  at  length 
on  the  good  books  which  some  have  read ;  but  he 
should  be  careful  not  to  mention  any  of  those  which 
have  been  read  but  are  of  little  value. 

Teach  pupils  to  swoop  down,  as  it  were,  upon  a  mass 
of  words  and  bear  away  the  ideas  expressed,  for  with 
the  average  modern  writer  the  words  are  so  many 
and  the  ideas  so  few  and  so  well  concealed  that  it  re- 
quires the  eye  of  a  hawk  and  the  power  of  a  magnet 
to  discover  and  drag  out  the  little  truths  from  the  tan- 
gled pile  of  rubbish.  By  having  the  pupils  give  to  the 
class  the  central  thought  in  any  good  book  recently 
read,  you  may  teach  them  in  a  way  to  do  this. 


28  PRACTICAL   PEDAGOGY 

After  the  pupils  have  read  through  their  readers  once 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  let  them  read  again  all  the  selections 
from  some  author  agreed  upon,  to  give  quotations  from 
that  author,  or  to  bring  to  class  selections  from  his 
writings.  Of  course  it  would  not  be  wise  to  treat  every 
author  whose  name  appears  in  the  book  in  this  way,  but 
at  least  several  authors  may  be  studied  in  this  manner. 

Poetry.  —  If  literature  is  an  expression  of  life,  the 
study  of  literature  should  consist  in  the  interpretation 
of  life.  Poetry  portrays  the  moral  side  of  life  and 
expresses  the  joys,  hopes,  fears,  strivings,  and  aspira- 
tions of  humanity.  The  study  of  poetry  teaches  the 
pupils  the  love  of  the  beautiful,  brings  them  into  the 
world  of  the  imagination,  and  encourages  them  to  do 
and  to  be. 

It  will  be  well  at  times  for  the  teacher  to  read  to  the 
pupils  some  poem  so  as  to  bring  out  the  music.  They 
will  soon  feel  that  music  is  varied,  some  flowing 
smoothly,  some  rough  and  broken,  and  again  light 
and  quick  or  heavy  and  slow  of  motion.  If  a  number 
of  poems  by  a  single  author  are  read,  pupils  will  find 
that  there  is  a  sameness  about  his  way  of  singing.  For 
instance,  they  will  discover  that  Tennyson's  music  is 
varied  and  polished ;  that  Bryant's  music  is  deep,  full, 
and  resounding;  and  that  Riley's  is  dainty  and  light. 
If  the  teacher  will  have  pupils  look  for  the  pictures 
in  the  poems  they  read,  they  will  discover  that  Scott's 
pictures  are  highly  colored;  that  Tennyson  gives  us 


READING  29 

landscapes;  and  that  Byron  paints  the  grandeur  of 
nature ;  that  while  some  pictures  are  painted  in  detail, 
others  are  only  suggestive. 

If  pupils  are  asked  to  point  out  the  passages  which 
they  like  best,  whether  in  prose  or  poetry,  those  express- 
ing patience,  inspiration,  truth,  and  faith  will  be  selected. 
The  boys  of  a  school  will  select  passages  which  treat 
of  heroism  and  of  military  glory ;  the  girls,  those  that 
tell  of  sweet  charity.  Each  can  give  reasons  for  the 
selections  made,  which  is  expressing  judgment  of  lit- 
erary values. 

This  fifth  step  in  reading  carries  with  it  the  whole 
culture  value  of  the  subject  in  the  grades,  and  is  most 
important  whether  denominated  as  literature  or  reading. 

In  teaching  pupils  to  judge  of  the  literary  values  and 
to  exercise  their  ethical  judgment  in  the  study  of  com- 
position great  tact  and  care  should  be  used.  The  steps 
in  studying  a  selection  in  this  way  might  be:  first,  to 
get  the  author's  thought;  second,  to  get  the  pupil  to 
think  with  the  author  by  seeing  relations;  and  third, 
to  knit  the  knowledge  gained  from  the  author  to  that 
which  the  pupil  already  has.  The  first  step  is  getting 
the  general  idea  of  the  composition;  then  analyze  the 
parts  upon  which  the  general  idea  is  based,  —  that  is, 
the  things  which  go  to  make  up  the  picture  in  a  descrip- 
tion ;  the  events  which  form  the  narrative ;  or  the  points 
in  the  author's  argument.  In  this  the  student  is  seeing 
relations  of  these  parts  to  each  other  and  to  the  general 
idea  —  he  is  discriminating,  comparing,  judging. 


30  PRACTICAL   PEDAGOGY 

Of  course  the  pupil  has  been  using  the  knowledge  he 
already  had  in  order  to  interpret  the  knowledge  offered 
by  the  writer,  but  he  ought  to  bring  up  what  he  already 
knows  on  the  subject  or  has  gained  through  experience 
or  previous  reading  and  unite  this  with  what  he  is  read- 
ing. If  he  has  been  reading  of  the  author's  idea  of 
good  men,  he  should  reproduce  the  opinions  of  other 
writers  as  to  good  men,  supplement  this  with  his  own 
idea  of  what  constitutes  good  men,  and  in  this  way 
produce  a  more  nearly  perfect  concept  of  good  men. 

Supplementary  Reading.  —  There  are  two  general 
classes  of  supplementary  reading.  The  first  is  col- 
lateral reading,  such  as  books  intended  to  supplement 
the  work  in  history,  geography,  science,  etc.,  and  to 
enlarge  the  pupil's  view  of  the  subject  in  hand  or  to 
help  clear  up  doubtful  points  and  strengthen  impres- 
sions upon  his  mind.  This  reading  undoubtedly  adds 
to  the  pupil's  interest  in  school  studies,  and  no  doubt 
unconsciously  he  is  influenced  by  the  author's  style  as 
well  as  by  his  thought.  But  in  this  reading  the  main 
purpose  is  the  improvement  of  the  pupil's  thought  and 
bringing  him  into  relation  with  the  best  minds  in  the 
literary  world  upon  the  points  under  discussion. 

The  second  class  of  supplementary  reading  is  that 
which  is  designed  to  train  the  pupil  in  reading  good 
books  or  designed  to  create  and  foster  a  taste  for  good 
literature.  This  kind  of  reading  meets  the  demand  of 
those  who  claim  that  having  taught  the  child  to  read, 


READING  31 

we  should  teach  him  what  to  read.  It  contributes  to 
the  aesthetic  culture  of  the  pupil ;  broadens  and  deepens 
his  daily  living;  and  makes  his  mind  more  keenly 
alive  to  all  that  is  beautiful  in  nature  and  in  art.  It 
enriches  life  by  bringing  into  it  the  inheritance  of  the 
best  thought  of  the  present  and  past  ages.  This  with 
the  young  is  a  potent  factor  in  the  building  of  charac- 
ter. If  the  psychology  of  character  building  is  summed 
up  in  four  sentences :  "  I  see,  I  like,  I  wish  I  were,  I 
will  be,"  then  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  character 
building  can  be  obtained  by  observing  fully  this  fifth 
step  in  reading. 

General  Suggestions.  —  Pupils  learn  to  read  by  being 
drilled  in  reading.  Drill,  drill,  drill,  is  a  proper  motto 
for  the  reading  class.  Every  child  should  read  at  least 
two  first  readers  and  two  second  readers,  or  the  equiv- 
alent. Drilling  in  what  he  can  understand  is  his  only 
hope  of  learning  to  read  with  expression.  Drill,  drill, 
drill  the  pupil  until  he  can  recognize  and  pronounce 
words  without  a  conscious  mental  struggle.  He  should 
be  drilled  until  he  does  not  stop  to  think.  Teacher,  if 
the  reading  in  your  school  is  soulless,  it  is  your  fault. 
Take  a  spirited  selection  and  drill  upon  it  until  the 
pupils  catch  its  spirit 

It  is  necessary  to  teach  reading  in  all  that  pupils 
read.  Why  observe  the  punctuation  marks  in  the 
reader  and  not  in  the  history,  geography,  or  arithme- 
tic ?  Why  teach  a  pupil  to  observe  in  one  study  a  thing 


32  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

that  he  does  not  observe  in  another  study  or  exercise  ? 
Why  permit  a  pupil  to  revive  a  bad  habit  by  indiffer- 
ence on  your  part  ?  One  virtue  of  teaching  is  persist- 
ency of  purpose.  Many  teachers  fail  because  they  are 
spasmodic  in  their  efforts.  There  is  an  infinity  of  dif- 
ference between  a  well-developed  purpose  and  a  spasm. 

The  more  uniform  and  exacting  a  teacher's  methods, 
the  less  time  and  labor  required  to  establish  a  habit. 
Habit  is  the  result  of  methodical  and  persistent  repeti- 
tion. Education  ends  in  habit.  An  earnest  and  per- 
sistent purpose  is  back  of  every  success.  God  gives 
nothing  for  the  mere  asking.  Effort  accompanies  all 
successful  prayers.  "  Faith  without  works  is  dead." 

If  teachers  would  interest  pupils  in  a  reading  lesson, 
they  must  be  interested  in  the  lesson  themselves.  In- 
terest begets  interest.  The  sincere  and  purposeful 
teacher  can  become  interested  in  the  simplest  stories. 
A  teacher  can  no  more  interest  a  class  in  the  first  reader 
without  preparation  than  he  can  interest  a  class  in  the 
"  Binomial  Theorem  "  without  preparation. 


We  teach  him  to  read  without  implanting  in  his  soul  such  love 
of  the  good  in  literature  that  he  will  choose  the  good  and  no  other, 
and  we  have  opened  for  him  doors  into  evil  paths  as  well  as  good, 
without  power  to  withstand  the  temptations  of  the  one  and  to 
steadily  pursue  the  other.  —  Sarah  L.  Arnold. 

There  are  some  people,  old  and  young,  who  will  never  read ; 
there  are  many  who  can  easily  be  made  to  read  too  much.  It  is 


READING  33 

possible  to  read  too  many  books,  even  good  books.  The  Sunday 
school  library,  and  even  the  public  library,  sometimes  bring  to  the 
young  people  too  many  books  for  their  mental  development.  We 
need  to  emphasize  the  use  of  books  rather  than  the  reading  of  books. 

—  A.  E.  Winship. 

It  is  apparent  that  familiarity  with  the  English  Bible,  as  a  master- 
piece of  literature,  is  rapidly  decreasing  among  the  pupils  in  our 
schools.  This  is  the  direct  result  of  a  conception  which  regards  the 
Bible  as  a  theological  book  merely,  and  thereby  leads  to  its  exclusion 
from  the  schools  of  some  states  as  a  subject  of  reading  and  study. 
We  hope  for  such  a  change  of  public  sentiment  in  this  regard  as 
will  permit  and  encourage  the  reading  and  study  of  the  English 
Bible  as  a  literary  work  of  the  highest  and  purest  type  side  by  side 
with  the  poetry  and  prose  which  it  has  inspired  and  in  large  part 
formed. 

We  do  not  urge  this  in  the  interest  of  sectarian  instruction  of 
any  kind,  but  that  this  great  book  may  ever  be  the  teacher's  aid 
in  the  interpretation  of  history  and  literature,  law  and  life  —  an 
unrivaled  agency  in  the  development  of  true  citizenship  as  well  as 
in  the  formation  of  pure  literary  style. 

—  Resolution  of  National  Educational  Association^  1902. 


CHAPTER   IV 

ARITHMETIC 

To  presume  that  the  ability  to  "figure"  is  the  whole 
aim  in  teaching  arithmetic  is  to  see  only  the  smaller 
part  of  the  purposes ;  to  suppose  that  a  knowledge  of 
how  to  solve  the  problems  is  the  only  aim  is  peda- 
gogical myopia.  The  latter  fault  is  more  frequently 
found,  the  former  more  loudly  condemned;  either  is 
inexcusable. 

If  we  consider  arithmetic  as  an  educational  end,  then 
what  value  is  there  in  it  if  it  be  inaccurate  ?  Who 
would  accept  your  business  calculations  if  you  were 
known  to  be  inaccurate  in  arithmetic  ?  If  we  consider 
it  as  an  educational  agency,  there  is  still  more  demand 
for  exactness. 

The  purposes  in  teaching  arithmetic,  aside  from  the 
necessary  fund  of  useful  information  gained,  are  to  culti- 
vate exact  reasoning  and  accurate  mechanical  execution. 
Therefore  any  method  found  to  be  deficient  in  develop- 
ing these  powers  should  be  condemned. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  argue  that  we  teach  arithmetic 
to  cultivate  exact  reasoning,  for  that  is  generally  under- 
stood and  asserted.  And  it  will  also  be  readily  admitted 
that  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  should  cultivate  accuracy 

34 


ARITHMETIC  35 

in  mechanical  execution ;  but  we  must  own  that  much 
work  accepted  by  many  teachers  in  their  daily  teaching 
is  not  characterized  by  severe  accuracy. 

Incorrect  Methods.  —  To  illustrate  that  the  usual 
methods  of  teaching  are  not  always  conducive  to  the 
development  of  self-directed  accuracy,  we  give  the 
following :  — 

Ten  pupils  are  sent  to  the  blackboard  and  given  work. 
Presently  the  teacher  says :  "  John,  where  did  you  get 
seven  per  cent?  Don't  you  see  that  it  says  eight  per 
cent  ?  "  John  erases  the  seven  and  begins  to  multiply 
by  eight.  Soon  that  delightful  (?)  sound  (snapping  fin- 
gers by  non-reciting  pupils)  is  heard,  and  John,  heeding 
the  warning,  examines  his  work  and  finds  that  he  has 
said  (mentally  or  perhaps  in  audible  whisper),  "  Six 
times  seven  are  thirty-six."  This  he  corrects  and  again 
begins  operations.  This  time  a  hand  that  is  waving 
frantically  is  recognized  by  the  teacher,  and  Mary  (at 
her  seat)  says,  "John  has  divided  by  three  instead  of 
four;  three  months  equal  one  fourth  of  one  year." 
John  promptly  changes  divisors  and  proceeds.  And 
what  is  true  of  John  is  true  of  each  reciting  pupil. 
In  fact,  throughout  this  recitation  the  pupils  at  the  board 
are  deprived  of  the  privilege  of  self-direction.  They  do 
nothing  by  themselves ;  hence,  they  are  not  benefited  or 
developed. 

Reader,  will  you  argue  that  this  is  an  extreme  case  ? 
Well,  so  it  is ;  but  the  tendencies  here  mentioned  actually 


36  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

exist  in  many  of  our  schools.  If  you  require  proof, 
you  have  only  to  go  in  your  imagination  to  the  schools 
you  attended,  the  schools  you  have  taught,  and  the 
schools  you  have  visited ;  then  say  for  yourself  whether 
these  things  exist.  It  is  allowable  to  help  pupils  to 
understand  problems,  but  it  is  wrong  to  solve  their 
problems  for  them.  The  reasoning  may  be  above  their 
ability,  but  the  mechanical  operation  should  always  be 
required  of  them.  This  does  not  mean  that  they  should 
not  be  required  to  reason  for  themselves,  but  when  they 
cannot  understand,  they  may  be  helped.  Neither  does 
it  mean  that  new  mechanical  processes  should  not  be 
fully  explained,  but  when  a  process  is  understood,  the 
work  should  be  accurately  done  without  help.  Remem- 
ber that  the  various  problems  are  only  applications  of 
addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division.  Re- 
member also  that  these  fundamentals  are  mastered,  or 
should  be  mastered,  during  the  first  four  years  of  school, 
and  then  all  this  helpful  criticising  will  appear  not  only 
unnecessary,  but  clearly  harmful. 

Too  much  attention  cannot  be  given  to  the  funda- 
mental processes  of  arithmetic  in  primary  grades,  for  if 
pupils  do  not  become  accurate  in  these  processes  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  fourth  school  year,  they  seldom  do  so 
at  any  later  time. 

Model  Solutions.  —  Pupils  should  not  learn  to  solve 
problems  by  patterns  or  recipes,  for  that  destroys  all 
opportunity  to  cultivate  the  power  of  reasoning,  and 


ARITHMETIC  37 

reduces  the  work  to  mere  mechanical  imitation.  They 
should  be  required  to  give  logical  analysis,  but  each  pupil 
should  give  his  own  analysis.  The  teacher  should  have 
a  mind  so  alert  and  a  nervous  system  so  adjustable  as 
to  be  able  to  follow  each  pupil  in  his  individual  analysis, 
and  reject  all  illogical  processes.  If  the  pupil  is  re- 
quired to  give  the  teacher's  analysis,  the  principal's 
analysis,  or  the  superintendent's  analysis,  wherein  is  he 
developed  ?  He  is  certainly  not  developed  in  power  for 
self-directed  thinking.  To  be  sure,  the  "machine"  is 
thereby  completed,  the  work  is  beautifully  (?)  done,  but 
at  the  child's  expense.  The  following  instance  will 
illustrate  the  fallacy  of  such  methods. 

A  boy  asked  his  mother  to  analyze  a  problem  for 
him,  but  when  she  did  so,  he  insisted  that  the  analysis 
was  wrong.  The  father  was  a  graduate  of  one  of  the 
best  universities,  and  taught  mathematics  in  another,  so 
the  matter  was  referred  to  him.  He  sustained  the 
mother  by  saying  that  the  analysis  was  logical  and  the 
result  correct.  On  the  following  day  the  boy  gave  this 
analysis  in  class  and  was  mortified  by  a  correction  from 
the  teacher.  Upon  his  return  home  he  met  his  parents 
with  this  remark :  "  I  told  you  that  you  couldn't  do  that 
sum.  You  left  out  two  '  hences '  and  a  '  therefore.'  " 
His  teacher  should  have  been  enlightened  or  dismissed, 
and  yet  there  are  others  of  her  kind. 

Correct  Methods. — Teachers  should  always  have  prob- 
lems solved  from  the  individual  view  point  of  the  pupil 


38  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

solving  it,  and  should  remember  that  model  solutions  are 
almost  useless  for  educational  purposes. 

When  work  is  to  be  done  at  the  board,  the  teacher 
should  know  (by  previous  discussion  or  otherwise)  that 
the  pupils  understand  the  problems,  and  then  see  to  it 
that  the  pupils  at  the  board  do  the  mechanical  work  and 
do  it  correctly.  Each  pupil  should  have  a  statement  of 
what  is  required,  should  finish  his  solution  without  in- 
terruption, and  then  face  the  school  ready  to  defend  his 
work  against  all  criticisms.  He  should  stand  alone  and 
succeed,  or  standing  alone,  fail,  and  feel  that  he  has 
failed.  A  pupil  who  cannot  solve  problems  correctly 
•without  helpful  criticisms  from  the  teacher  or  pupils  is 
either  a  dullard  or  has  not  been  properly  taught. 

Mental  Arithmetic.  —  Mental  arithmetic  concerns 
itself  with  principles  rather  than  processes,  and  empha- 
sizes meaning  rather  than  mechanical  observation.  It 
lays  stress  upon  the  science  of  number  rather  than  the 
art  of  computation.  It  is  true  that  no  good  texts 
on  this  subject  ignore  the  practical  side  of  arithme- 
tic, but  they  present  it  as  subordinate  to  the  scientific 
side. 

Mental  arithmetic  is  not  a  substitute  for  written  arith- 
metic. They  are  both  necessary ;  in  fact,  they  are  com- 
plements of  each  other.  No  teacher  who  has  had 
opportunity  to  observe  the  influence  of  mental  arithmetic 
on  the  pupils'  work  in  written  arithmetic  will  doubt  for 
a  moment  the  great  value  of  the  former. 


ARITHMETIC  39 

Pupils  gain  from  mental  arithmetic  ability  to  reason 
correctly  in  the  use  of  numbers,  and  can  be  more  confi- 
dently depended  upon  to  apply  proper  principles  to  the 
processes  of  written  arithmetic  after  having  had  thor- 
ough drill  in  mental  arithmetic.  For  this  reason,  each 
topic  or  subject  in  arithmetic  should  be  treated  orally 
before  the  written  processes  are  attempted. 

FUNDAMENTAL  PROCESSES 

Addition.  —  Children  should  be  taught  to  name  the 
sum  of  any  two  numbers  at  sight.  There  is  no  more 
excuse  for  counting  numbers  together  in  adding  than 
there  is  for  spelling  the  letters  of  a  syllable  together 
in  reading.  To  find  the  sum  of  two  small  numbers 
requires  but  one  mental  act. 

Only  forty-five  combinations  of  two  figures  each  can 
be  formed  with  the  nine  significant  digits ;  only  seven- 
teen different  words  are  required  to  name  the  results. 
Twenty-five  of  the  forty-five  combinations  make  sums 
of  ten  or  less.  When  the  combinations  are  learned,  the 
mind  recognizes  them  as  different  forms  of  numbers 
without  regard  to  the  figures  themselves.  Pupils  should 
be  so  familiar  with  the  forty-five  combinations  that  the 
sum  of  two  numbers  is  seen  as  quickly  as  the  number 
itself. 

The  forty-five  primary  problems  in  addition  are  as 
follows :  — 


40  PRACTICAL   PEDAGOGY 


I 

2 

3 

2 

4 

3 

5 

4 

3 

6 

5 

4 

I 

I 

i 

2 

i 

2 

i 

2 

3 

i 

2 

3 

7 

6 

5 

1 

4 

8 

7 

6 

5 

9 

8 

7 

6 

i 

2 

3 

4 

i 

2 

3 

4 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

9 

8 

7 

6 

3 

8 

7 

6 

9 

8 

7 

5 

2 

3 

4 

5 

9 

4 

5 

6 

4 

5 

6 

9 

8 

7 

9 

7 

9 

8 

9 

9 

5 

6 

7f 

6 

8 

£ 

8 

8 

9 

9 

Subtraction.  —  Subtraction  is  simple  when  addition  is 
mastered.  Subtraction  finds  what  number  added  to  the 
smaller  of  two  numbers  makes  the  larger.  That  is,  find- 
ing the  difference  between  two  numbers  is  finding  the 
wanting  part  of  the  sum  of  two  numbers  when  one  num- 
ber is  given.  The  minuend  is  the  sum  of  two  numbers, 
the  subtrahend  is  one  of  the  numbers,  and  the  wanting 
part  is  the  difference.  Subtraction  is  thinking  to  the 
smaller  number  a  number  which  makes  it  equal  to  the 
larger  number. 

'  When  a  pupil  knows  the  forty-five  combinations,  he 
sees  at  a  glance  the  number  which,  added  to  the  smaller 
number,  makes  the  larger  one.  The  mind  almost  un- 
consciously calls  up  the  wanting  part  of  the  combina- 
tion which  makes  the  larger  number.  So  strong  is  the 
law  of  association  that  to  know  addition  thoroughly  is 
to  know  subtraction  also. 


ARITHMETIC  41 

Multiplication.  —  Children  should  be  taught  that  mul- 
tiplication is  a  form  of  addition  —  that  the  multiplier 
shows  how  many  times  the  multiplicand  is  to  be  taken 
or  repeated ;  that  the  multiplier  is  always  an  abstract 
number;  that  we  cannot  repeat  a  number  five  cents 
times  or  five  yards  times,  but  five  product  is  the  same 
as  the  multiplicand  because  repeating  a  number  or 
quantity  does  not  change  its  nature  or  quality.  Thus, 
five  units  taken  five  times  are  twenty-five  units,  five 
yards  taken  five  times  are  twenty-five  yards. 

There  should  be  no  hurry  to  solve  problems.  Pupils 
need  understanding  more  than  they  need  answers. 
The  formal  act  of  multiplying  adds  nothing  of  value 
after  the  mechanical  part  is  learned.  Pupils  do  not 
solve  problems  to  learn  to  "cipher,"  but  cipher  when 
necessary  to  solve  problems.  A  little  thinking  is  better 
than  much  ciphering. 

Division.  —  One  number  is  contained  in  another  as 
many  times  as  it  can  be  taken  from  the  other.  Division 
is  a  sort  of  subtraction.  One  number  cannot  contain 
another  dollars  times,  but  merely  times.  The  remainder 
is  the  undivided  part  of  the  dividend ;  hence,  it  is  like  it. 

Pupils  should  be  made  so  familiar  with  the  mechanical 
work  of  arithmetic  that  adding,  subtracting,  multiplying, 
and  dividing  will  be  automatic,  i.e.  done  without  much 
conscious  mental  effort.  If  pupils  are  permitted  to  pass 
over  the  ground  rules  in  an  indefinite,  slipshod  manner, 


42  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

the  probability  is  that  they  will  always  blunder  in  the 
purely  mechanical  work  of  arithmetic. 

Pupils  should  be  trained  to  solve  arithmetical  prob- 
lems by  brief  and  intelligent  methods  and  kept  free 
from  set  rules  and  formulas.  What  a  pupil  does  in 
arithmetic,  he  should  do  consciously,  not  mechanically. 
Memory,  or  rule  arithmetic,  always  fails  when  most 
needed.  Principles  should  be  inductively  developed  in 
the  class  and  then  consciously  applied  by  the  pupils  to 
the  solution  of  text-book  problems,  and  to  problems 
prevalent  in  the  everyday  life  and  occupations  of  the 
community. 


CHAPTER  V 

SPELLING 

THE  spelling  of  a  word  involves  the  recall  of  certain 
memory  images  and  concepts,  such  as  the  visual  image 
of  the  written  or  printed  word ;  the  memory  images  of 
the  phonetic  elements  or  the  endings,  prefixes,  and  suf- 
fixes of  certain  classes  of  words. 

In  the  spelling  of  English  words  silent  letters  and 
other  etymological  peculiarities  impose  a  tremendous 
task  upon  the  learner. 

In  the  primary  grades,  especially,  the  chief  reliance 
is  upon  the  sense  of  sight.  Pupils  must  acquire  correct 
mental  images  of  words  or  they  cannot  recall  their  cor- 
rect spelling.  They  must  be  trained  to  see  words ;  to 
see  the  different  syllables  of  a  word ;  to  see  the  correct 
form  of  a  word;  to  pronounce  each  syllable  distinctly 
and  correctly ;  to  commit  to  memory  a  few  of  the  rules 
of  spelling,  and  then  drilled,  drilled,  drilled  in  the  use 
of  the  rules.  They  should  also  be  required  to  use  every 
word  in  their  formal  spelling  lessons  in  thoughtful  sen- 
tences. The  mere  spelling  of  a  list  of  words  orally 
counts  for  little. 

Written  Spelling.  —  As  we  spell  only  when  we  write, 
the  eye  should  be  trained  from  the  start  to  recognize 

43 


44  PRACTICAL   PEDAGOGY 

the  combinations  of  letters  which  represent  the  different 
phonetic  elements.  As  soon  as  a  pupil  can  write,  he 
should  be  required  to  copy  the  spelling  lessons  in  his 
reader.  If  he  is  required  to  copy  his  spelling  lessons, 
he  will  give  closer  attention  to  the  form  of  the  word 
than  when  he  merely  studies  the  lesson  and  spells  the 
word  orally.  Written  spelling  lessons  are  also  exercises 
in  penmanship,  and  they  afford  the  teacher  a  rare  op- 
portunity to  train  pupils  in  habits  of  order,  neatness, 
and  promptness. 

Pupils  should  spell  and  respell  new  words  as  they 
occur  in  each  study.  In  this  way  spelling  is  taught 
with  all  the  other  branches.  Pupils  should  spend  no 
time  in  spelling  words  that  they  will  seldom  or  never 
use,  such  as  unimportant  geographical  and  historical 
names.  It  is  enough  that  a  pupil  recognizes  these 
words  readily  in  reading. 

In  the  first  three  grades,  or  during  the  first  three 
years  of  a  child's  school  life,  the  spelling  lessons  should 
consist  largely  in  copying  sentences  and  new  words. 
In  this  way  pupils  in  the  lower  grades  acquire  by  imita- 
tion the  correct  spelling  of  simple  words. 

The  teacher  should  keep  lists  of  words  frequently 
misspelled  and  make  special  lessons  of  them.  This  will 
concentrate  the  attention  of  the  class  upon  the  mis- 
spelled words.  The  teacher  should  ascertain,  if  possible, 
why  these  words  were  misspelled ;  should  call  attention 
to  the  very  letters  in  these  words  which  most  probably 
caused  the  pupil  to  misspell  them,  and  should  bring 


SPELLING  45 

into  clear  consciousness  the  correct  form  of  the  mis- 
spelled words. 

Oral  Spelling. — The  direct  usefulness  of  spelling  is 
not  limited  entirely  to  what  one  writes.  People  in  dif- 
ferent vocations  will  use  different  words.  Nothing  less 
than  an  unabridged  dictionary  would  contain  all  of  the 
words  used  in  the  English  language,  and  few  people 
live  long  enough  to  commit  this  formidable  list  to  mem- 
ory. Good  spelling  is  indispensable;  still  we  do  not 
believe  that  words  are  written  simply  to  be  spelled,  and 
that  men  are  born  simply  to  spell  words.  Twenty-five 
hundred  words  are  probably  all  that  are  in  everyday 
use  by  the  masses,  and  this  is  about  the  number  that  an 
average  pupil  in  the  grammar  grades  should  be  required 
to  learn  to  spell. 

In  the  lower  grades  spelling  is  an  invaluable  aid  to 
proper  pronunciation.  Especially  is  this  true  if  the 
pupils  are  required  to  syllabify  words;  for  in  so  doing 
they  will  get  more  distinct  mental  images  of  the  form 
and  sound  of  the  separate  syllables  and  hence  retain 
a  more  definite  concept  of  the  word. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  pupils  in  oral  spelling 
first  repeat  the  word  so  that  the  teacher  may  know  that 
his  own  pronunciation  has  been  understood,  then  each 
syllable  pronounced  as  the  word  is  spelled,  and  the  word 
re-pronounced,  defined,  and  used  in  a  thoughtful  sentence. 
When  a  pupil  has  recited  his  spelling  in  this  way,  he  has 
deepened  the  mental  image  of  the  whole  word  form,  and 


46  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

the  form  of  each  syllable,  also  the  mental  image  of  the 
word  sound  and  its  several  phonetic  elements.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  the  form  and  sound  of  a  word  are  more 
easily  retained  if  the  word  has  been  mastered  by  learn- 
ing its  meaning  and  use  —  if  it  has  become  a  part  of  the 
pupil's  vocabulary.  The  plan  of  spelling  all  the  words 
in  the  book  as  rapidly  as  possible  without  giving  any 
attention  to  rules  or  reason  is  a  schoolroom  farce  that 
should  have  no  place  even  in  the  poorest  school. 

Simplified  Spelling.  —  Frequently  the  movement  for 
simplified  spelling  is  thought  to  be  simply  a  movement 
for  phonetic  spelling,  but  the  two  movements  are  not 
identical.  In  the  matter  of  phonetic  spelling  or  spelling 
by  sound,  the  present  alphabet  will  not  serve  perfectly 
and  as  yet  no  alphabet  has  been  found  that  is  complete. 
Until  such  an  alphabet  is  invented  phonetic  spelling 
cannot  be  universally  adopted. 

The  present  current  spelling  of  our  language  is 
needlessly  difficult.  It  is  estimated  that  the  letters  in 
our  written  language  are  at  least  ten  per  cent  more 
numerous  than  is  necessary.  The  learning  of  spelling 
in  English  requires  a  great  amount  of  extra  time  and 
retards  the  learner's  progress  in  all  subjects.  At  least 
one  year's  time  in  the  grammar  grades  is  consumed  in 
learning  the  difficult  spelling  of  our  tongue.  Simplified 
spelling  would  prevent  this  needless  waste  of  time  and 
effort  in  the  schooling  of  the  young. 

Spelling  reform  is  accomplished  by  gradual  change  as 


SPELLING  47 

the  language  is  simplified  or  as  a  close  parallelism  is 
established  between  the  correct  sound  and  the  written 
or  printed  form  of  words.  If  one  should  write  fysche 
for  fish,  sunne  for  sun,  trewe  for  true,  cuppe  for  cup,  etc., 
as  our  ancestors  did,  he  would  realize  how  much  needless 
effort  they  expended  in  recording  word  symbols  and 
and  would  cease  to  cry,  "  Spare  the  spelling  of  our  fath- 
ers." When  we  have  written  through  for  thru,  prologue 
for  prolog,  programme  for  program,  etc.,  we  can  begin 
to  understand  the  necessity  for  eliminating  superfluous 
letters  in  our  language.  When  letters  are  in  no  sense 
helpful,  leave  them  out,  is  a  good  rule  for  teachers  to 
follow.  A  silent  letter  may  be  needed  to  indicate  the 
sound  of  an  adjacent  letter,  as  a  in  the  past  tense  of 
read,  or  it  may  be  needed  to  indicate  the  sense  of  a  word, 
as  the  u  in  Saviour.  When  there  is  use  for  a  letter  in 
a  word,  we  must  keep  it,  whether  our  spelling  is  ever 
reformed  or  not. 

Reform  in  spelling  must  be  a  growth — a  gradual 
change.  It  cannot  be  brought  about  by  decree  any 
more  than  it  can  be  stopped  by  ridicule.  Teachers 
should  take  a  sensible  view  of  this  subject  and  lend 
reasonable  help  to  the  simplification  of  spelling. 


CHAPTER  VI 

GEOGRAPHY 

GEOGRAPHY  may  be  defined  as  the  science  which  de- 
scribes the  earth  in  its  relation  to  man.  From  this  pro- 
visional definition  we  must  conclude  that  geography  is 
a  science  study  —  that  a  knowledge  of  it  must  be  based 
upon  sense  perception.  To  illustrate  that  our  knowledge 
of  geography  is  based  upon  sense  perception  we  have 
only  to  think  of  trying  to  form  the  concept  "  mountains" 
without  seeing  a  mountain  and  without  the  use  of  the 
concept  "  hill."  In  the  extension  of  our  knowledge  of 
this  subject  we  rely  upon  the  imagination  and  the  re- 
corded knowledge  gained  by  others  through  sense  per- 
ception, but  in  adopting  or  rejecting  methods  of  teaching 
geography  we  must  remember  the  scope  and  nature  of 
our  subject. 

In  teaching  geography  we  should  emphasize  those 
features  which  influence  human  life  and  action.  When 
geography  is  made  a  technical  study  of  names,  bounda- 
ries, and  locations,  it  loses  its  usefulness  and  the  pupils 
lose  their  interest.  In  fact,  these  things  are  not  usually 
important,  and  however  faithfully  a  teacher  may  work 
in  attempting  to  fill  the  minds  of  his  pupils  with  these 
dry,  statistical  facts,  he  cannot  arouse  interest  in  the 
subject  or  secure  any  valuable  results. 

48 


GEOGRAPHY  49 

Geography  properly  taught  gives  pupils  a  knowledge 
of  the  life  (plant  and  animal)  of  a  country  as  well  as  of 
its  climate  and  the  environment  of  its  people ;  it  becomes 
an  inspiring  and  extremely  profitable  study;  it  trains  the 
pupils  to  create  mental  pictures  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth ;  to  see  lakes,  oceans,  rivers,  hills,  mountains,  vil- 
lages, and  cities;  to  note  the  positions  upon  the  earth 
where  environment  favors  man,  or  to  discover  how  man 
may  profit  by  his  environment.  To  a  pupil  properly 
taught,  the  marks  and  dots  on  the  map  suggest  real 
representations. 

Primary  Geography.  —  Before  a  child  enters  school 
he  has  acquired  a  considerable  geographical  knowledge, 
and  the  tactful  teacher  begins  his  task  by  finding  out 
how  much  the  pupils  know.  Should  he  desire  to  teach 
the  shape  of  the  earth,  he  would  introduce  the  study 
by  a  simple  inductive  exercise  which  will  develop  a 
clear  concept  of  the  sphere  from  the  pupils'  knowledge 
of  familiar  objects  (ball,  orange,  marble,  etc.)  that  are 
round.  Next  in  order,  perhaps,  would  be  the  surface 
of  various  familiar  objects,  including  the  earth's  surface 
as  the  pupils  have  seen  it  By  inquiry  the  teacher  can 
lead  the  class  to  discover  that  they  have  not  seen  all  of 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  but  in  so  far  as  they  have  ob- 
served the  surface  of  the  earth  is  composed  of  land  and 
water.  But  is  it  nearly  all  land  ?  Is  there  more  land 
than  water  ?  At  this  point  the  teacher  may  introduce 
the  globe  and  let  the  pupils  help  to  find  out  that  there 


50  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

is  more  water  than  land  and  then  teach  them  the  exact 
proportions. 

We  should  teach  distances,  — foot,  yard,  mile,  etc., — 
and  have  the  pupils  think  these  distances ;  then  try  to 
think  how  many  miles  around  the  earth.  One  pupil  has 
been  to  a  distant  point  How  far  ?  Can  he  think  ?  Let 
him  bring  the  globe  and  show  to  the  class  the  points  from 
and  to  which  he  traveled.  After  this  exercise  the  teacher 
should  give  the  circumference  of  the  earth  ; — he  should 
first  get  the  concept  formed  and  then  place  the  figures 
before  the  pupils. 

To  teach  the  motions  of  the  earth  and  other  planets, 
the  pupils  should  be  led  to  form  mental  images  of  the 
spherical  bodies  revolving  in  space :  to  see  the  earth, 
mentally,  swinging  in  space  ;  to  see  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars  floating  in  space.  If  they  can  form  these  mental 
images,  they  can  begin  to  understand  the  courses  of  the 
seasons  and  of  day  and  night.  With  proper  instruction 
they  can  do  this. 

If  pupils  do  not  know  the  cardinal  points  of  the  com- 
pass, these  should  be  definitely  fixed  in  their  minds  by 
calling  attention  to  the  position  of  the  sun  and  by  re- 
peatedly requiring  the  pupils  to  recognize  and  give  these 
directions. 

Before  a  pupil  can  understand  the  maps  in  his  geog- 
raphy he  needs  to  be  given  some  instruction  and  practice 
in  making  maps.  It  is  well  to  begin  this  by  having  him 
make  on  his  tablet  a  map  (representation)  of  the  bot- 
tom of  his  ink-well,  the  map  being  the  same  size  as  the 


GEOGRAPHY  51 

object ;  next  requiring  him  to  make  a  map  of  his  book, 
the  map  being  the  same  size  as  the  object.  Next  he 
should  try  to  make  a  map  of  the  top  of  his  desk ;  but  as 
it  is  too  large  to  be  drawn  on  his  tablet,  let  him  make 
it  only  one  tenth  as  large — necessity  for  scale  devel- 
oped. Next  let  him  make  a  map  of  the  schoolroom, 
placing  the  north  part  of  the  room  at  the  top  of  his 
paper.  Require  him  to  locate  on  his  map  certain  objects 
in  the  room,  and  he  will  thus  discover  the  manner  and 
need  of  indicating  latitude  and  longitude.  If  the  teacher 
will  extend  this  exercise  until  the  school  district,  the 
county,  the  state,  the  United  States,  North  America,  and 
the  world  have  been  mapped,  the  pupils  may  be  able,  by 
the  use  of  a  map  and  the  accompanying  description,  to 
form  a  somewhat  reliable  and  accurate  concept  of  the 
location  of  places  they  have  never  visited. 

When  these  introductory  and  fundamental  facts  are 
clearly  understood  by  the  pupils,  the  teacher  should  give 
them  text -books.  This  can  usually  be  accomplished  by 
the  end  of  the  third  year.  Teachers  should  give  the 
pupils  these  exercises  and  see  that  they  are  understood 
before  introducing  a  text-book  in  geography. 

Pupils  should  devote  much  time  to  the  geography  of 
our  own  country  and  little  to  that  of  foreign  countries. 
The  geography  of  Africa  and  Australia  should  be  studied 
only  in  a  general  way — only  as  wholes.  The  small 
political  divisions  of  Europe,  South  America,  and  Asia 
might  be  entirely  omitted. 

Descriptive  geography  furnishes  ample  opportunity 


52  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

for  the  teacher  to  train  his  pupils  in  the  use  of  lan- 
guage, oral  and  written.  Every  important  geographical 
fact  should  be  described  orally  in  the  class  recitation, 
and  afterward  reproduced  in  the  form  of  composition. 
Written  descriptions  deepen  the  images  and  give  them 
greater  symmetry  of  form  than  oral  description. 

In  primary  geography  the  book  should  be  used  chiefly 
as  a  reader,  not  as  a  work  to  be  committed  to  memory. 

Advanced  Geography.  —  One  of  the  most  interesting 
fields  of  study  and  thought  is  here  opened  to  the  stu- 
dent. Here  he  is  to  learn  how  the  three  great  king- 
doms, mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal,  each  having  an 
independent  form,  are  related  to  the  earth's  surface  and 
to  human  history.  Geography  opens  the  gateway  to 
organic  and  inorganic  nature  and  reveals  the  manner  in 
which  the  earth  was  prepared  for  the  habitation  of  man. 
It  also  teaches  how  certain  races  or  nations  have  made 
advancement  in  civilization  while  others  have  made  no 
appreciable  progress.  Thus  we  see  that  geography 
lays  the  foundation  for  natural  science  and  also  for 
social  and  political  economy. 

Geography  should  enable  the  pupil  to  know  some- 
thing of  his  social  and  political  rights  and  duties  and  to 
understand  something  of  the  complex  relations  between 
various  industries  and  occupations. 

But  if  geography  is  treated  as  a  mass  of  discon- 
nected, unrelated,  dry  facts,  the  student  will  not  be 
developed  in  the  least.  Helen  Keller  once  remarked 


GEOGRAPHY  53 

that  her  main  objection  to  college  was  that  she  had  to 
study  so  much  of  the  time  that  she  had  no  time  to 
think.  Too  often  the  pupils  in  geography  have  a  simi- 
lar experience. 

Field  Exercises. — The  out-of-door  study  of  geography 
is  a  good  means  by  which  to  develop  thought.  Field 
excursions  and  field  exercises  are  included  in  all  inter- 
mediate plans  of  study  in  this  work.  Field  exercises 
are  more  useful  with  small  classes  and  field  excursions 
with  large  ones.  In  field  exercises  each  pupil  is  re- 
quired to  do  the  work,  but  in  field  excursions  the  pupils 
are  to  make  observations  for  themselves  and  the  teacher 
is  to  lead  in  class  work. 

To  illustrate  this  work  in  a  field  excursion  we  will 
suppose  a  class  of  twenty  pupils  to  be  standing  upon  a 
hill  somewhere  in  the  great  valley  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  and  the  teacher  to  be  endeavoring  to  impress 
them  with  the  magnitude  of  the  work  of  erosion. 

The  teacher  says,  "Now,  pupils,  face  the  south  and 
look  across  the  little  stream  below  us  to  the  top  of 
the  hill  on  the  other  side.  Now  close  your  eyes  and 
imagine  that  it  is  level  from  the  top  of  this  hill  to  the 
top  of  the  one  you  are  facing.  Imagine  also  that  it  is 
level  with  this  point  far  across  the  river  into  which  the 
stream  below  us  flows,  and  still  level  across  the  wide 
Mississippi  River  to  the  hills  beyond  it.  Now  imagine 
that  there  are  none  of  these  streams  in  existence,  but 
that  it  is  level  prairie  from  here  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 


54  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

Imagine  that  a  rain  falls  on  the  northern  shore  of  the 
Gulf ;  clods  of  moist  earth  fall  into  the  Gulf,  leaving  an 
opening  down  which  runs  the  water  from  the  level; 
other  rains  fall  and  other  earth  when  moistened  crum- 
bles and  falls  into  the  same  channel,  which  deepens, 
widens,  and  reaches  farther  inland ;  ages  of  rain  storms 
are  poured  upon  the  land  and  this  channel  becomes  a 
creek,  then  a  mighty  river,  its  source  receding  north- 
ward until  it  is  far  north  of  where  you  now  stand. 
Then  some  earth  falls  into  the  river  from  the  bank  on 
this  side,  and  a  channel  is  gradually  worn  and  a  stream 
formed  flowing  from  near  here ;  it  is  the  river  just 
below  us  into  which  the  stream  just  at  your  feet  is  now 
flowing,  and  this  stream  was  formed  in  like  manner  by 
clods  falling  into  the  river  and  continued  crumbling 
and  washing  away  of  earth  until  all  that  is  left  on  the 
former  great  level  plain  is  the  tops  of  these  hills  on  one 
of  which  we  are  now  standing.  Open  your  eyes  and 
tell  me  how  much  earth  the  water  has  swept  down 
toward  the  Gulf,  and  how  long  it  took  to  form  these 
hills." 

It  would  be  impossible  for  those  pupils  ever  to  forget 
such  a  lesson,  and  it  would  be  impossible  for  them  to 
fail  to  think.  But  this  is  only  one  of  many  out-of-door 
lessons  a  tactful  teacher  can  give. 

Industries.  —  Our  text-books  on  geography  are  too 
incomplete  and  fragmentary.  This  defect  is  probably 
due  to  the  plan  of  treating  all  or  a.  large  part  of  the 


GEOGRAPHY  55 

world  in  one  book;  but  a  tactful  teacher  can  supple- 
ment this  in  the  industries  by  collecting  specimens  of 
farm  products  or  of  manufactured  articles  in  process  of 
production.  Samples  of  crude  oils  and  of  the  same 
when  refined,  together  with  the  samples  of  the  by-prod- 
ucts obtained,  afford  material  for  valuable  exercises  in 
the  geography  class.  Another  illustration  would  be  in 
silk  manufacture.  In  studying  this  have  a  cocoon,  the 
silk  unwound,  and  dyed,  and  certain  finer  fabrics  of  silk 
after  manufacture.  Such  articles  as  these  mentioned 
can  be  easily  obtained  from  the  factories,  and  the  teach- 
ing of  the  industrial  part  of  geography  in  this  manner 
will  undoubtedly  be  more  beneficial  than  committing  to 
memory  condensed  statistical  statements  contained  in 
the  average  descriptive  geography. 

Map  Questions.  —  In  studying  location  of  places  it  is 
well  occasionally  to  put  the  class  at  the  board  and  ask 
them,  for  illustration,  to  draw  a  rough  outline  map  of 
the  United  States,  indicating  the  chief  rivers,  lakes,  and 
mountains ;  then,  as  the  teacher  calls  number  one,  New 
York,  let  the  pupils  place  the  figure  one  on  the  map 
where  the  City  of  New  York  should  be  located;  number 
two,  San  Francisco,  etc.,  until  the  principal  cities  are 
located.  Again,  let  the  teacher  call  the  word  wheat, 
the  word  corn,  the  word  cotton,  etc.,  and  let  the  pupils 
write  the  word  on  that  part  of  the  map  where  the 
article  is  produced.  The  same  should  be  done  with 
the  products  of  the  mines.  At  the  words  coal,  iron, 


56  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

gold,  or  silver,  the  pupil  should  write  these  words  ap- 
proximately in  the  places  where  the  products  form  an 
industry. 

Map  questions  in  the  geography  may  be  made  in- 
teresting if  they  are  extended.  As  an  illustration,  let 
us  suppose  that  we  are  studying  France.  Let  the  pupils 
use  their  maps  and  find  the  latitude  of  France.  Let 
them  compare  it  with  the  latitude  of  the  state  in  which 
they  reside.  Using  the  scale  let  them  find  the  length 
and  average  width  of  France  and  compare  this  with  the 
dimensions  of  their  own  country  and  state.  Then  have 
them  make  a  list  of  the  seaports  of  France  and  for 
comparison  another  list  of  the  seaports  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  United  States.  Have  them  examine  an 
isothermal  chart  and  state  how  France  compares  with 
their  own  state  in  temperature.  Ask  them  if  it  snows 
in  Paris  during  the  winter  and  if  the  people  sleigh- 
ride  and  skate.  Have  the  pupils  determine  what  part 
of  France  is  best  adapted  to  agriculture.  After  a 
comparison  of  the  population  and  area,  the  teacher 
should  see  if  the  pupils  think  France's  agricultural 
products  will  supply  her  demands.  This  line  of  ques- 
tions may  be  continued  indefinitely  and  supplemented 
by  printed  lists,  while  also  awakening  some  real  interest 
in  the  study  of  the  country  of  France. 

In  studying  any  foreign  country  the  pupils  should 
bring  to  the  class  such  articles  as  they  have  which  are 
imported  from  that  country,  and  discuss  the  production 
of  these  articles.  It  is  also  a  most  excellent  plan  to 


GEOGRAPHY  57 

introduce  the  study  of  a  foreign  country  by  associating 
historic  events  with  certain  localities. 

Inasmuch  as  geography  is  a  science  study,  any  reci- 
tation in  which  the  laboratory  method  is  approached, 
i.e.  out-of-door  geography,  illustrated  subjects  —  as  of 
commercial  commodities,  and  comparative  studies  of 
different  countries,  should  be  made  study  recitations. 
That  is,  the  teacher  and  pupils  should  investigate  and 
recite  what  they  find  out  as  it  is  learned. 

In  this,  as  in  all  other  subjects,  no  one  method  is 
best;  but  there  are  fundamentals  which  determine 
whether  methods  are  proper  or  improper,  and  the  suc- 
cess of  these  methods  when  employed  must,  of  course, 
depend  somewhat  upon  the  tact  and  energy  of  the 
teacher.  The  teaching  of  geography  has  received  much 
attention  in  recent  years  because  of  the  change  from 
the  old  method  of  catechism  teaching  of  questions  and 
answers. 

It  is  to  be  hoped,  at  least,  that  the  painful  sight  of 
the  teacher  reading  the  question  from  the  geography 
and  then  sending  his  finger  in  a  rapid  search  for  the 
location,  receiving  the  answer  from  the  class,  and  hur- 
rying through  the  next  question  in  the  same  manner, 
will  not  be  witnessed  longer  in  American  schools,  but 
that  geography  will  be  taught  by  methods  which  are  in 
accordance  with  the  needs  of  the  pupils  in  making 
geography  a  natural  science  study,  a  useful  study,  a 
bright  and  interesting  topic  in  the  schoolroom. 


CHAPTER  VII 

ENGLISH:  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 

WHEN  the  principal  characteristic  of  a  teacher  is 
purpose,  he  is  greater  than  any  method ;  and  he  seeks 
not  to  make  pupils  recite,  but  to  make  them  think.  To 
the  teacher,  the  best  evidence  of  clear  thinking  is  clear 
expression.  The  value  of  any  lesson  may  be  determined 
by  the  amount  of  clear  expression  called  forth,  but  this 
is  especially  true  of  lessons  in  English. 

Language.  —  In  teaching  elementary  English  the  end 
sought  is  expression — clear,  pure,  simple.  The  teacher 
must  know  methods  of  teaching.  He  must  also  know 
both  the  art  and  the  science  of  expression.  The  former 
is  language  work  —  the  art  of  expression  ;  the  latter  is 
technical  grammar  —  or  the  science  of  language. 

In  expression,  as  in  all  else,  pupils  readily  learn  from 
example.  The  language  of  the  teacher,  therefore,  may 
be  a  very  potent  factor  in  aiding  pupils  to  acquire  the 
power  of  correct  expression.  If  the  teacher  is  accurate 
in  the  selection  of  words  and  careful  in  the  construction 
of  sentences,  the  pupils  will  desire  to  use  good  language, 
and  by  imitation,  gradually  learn  to  do  so.  A  teacher 
who  habitually  uses  incorrect  language — who  is  care- 
less in  expression  —  cannot  teach  English  successfully. 

58 


ENGLISH:    LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR  59 

As  accuracy  of  expression  depends  upon  clearness  of 
thought,  a  pupil  should  never  be  asked  to  express  him- 
self until  he  knows  clearly  what  he  is  to  say.  The 
reflective  use  of  words  in  the  expression  of  original 
thought  is  a  most  valuable  exercise  in  the  cultivation 
of  the  power  of  expression. 

In  the  primary  grades,  sense  perception  should  be  the 
basis,  and  descriptive  composition  the  finished  product. 
Little  children  may  be  able  to  describe  what  they  have 
seen,  but  they  should  not  be  expected  to  discuss  abstract 
subjects  or  produce  argumentative  compositions.  The 
order  should  be  oral  exercises  first,  written  last;  the 
former  more  abundant.  The  subjects  assigned  should 
be  such  as  are  familiar  to  the  children,  objects  of  which 
each  child  has  frequently  had  and  still  retains  clear 
visual  images. 

Every  incorrect  expression  should  be  questioned  by 
the  teacher  and  corrected  by  the  pupil;  every  wordy 
statement  should  be  revised  by  the  pupil  until  it  is  clear 
and  concise.  The  use  of  language,  good  or  bad,  is  a 
habit  —  a  growth.  Habit  results  from  repetition.  A 
tactful  teacher  will  ever  be  on  the  alert  in  regard  to  the 
language  used  by  his  pupils  and  keep  them  on  their 
guard  as  to  what  they  say.  He  will  watch  them  until 
thoughtful  expression  becomes  a  fixed  habit  with  them. 
When  a  pupil  makes  use  of  an  incorrect  expression  or 
when  his  statements  are  not  made  in  clear,  smooth  Eng- 
lish, the  teacher  should  question  him  until  by  his  own  re- 
vision the  pupil  is  able  properly  to  express  his  thoughts. 


60  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

Letter  Writing.  —  Few  pupils  know  how  to  write  let- 
ters in  credible  style.  This  fault  is  due  to  a  lack  of 
proper  instruction  in  school.  Instruction  in  letter  writ- 
ing is  not  complete  until  by  application,  in  writing 
letters,  the  pupil  is  able  to  demonstrate  that  he  can 
apply  the  principles  of  written  expression  in  business 
and  social  correspondence. 

Teachers  of  different  schools  could  be  mutually  help- 
ful if  they  would  have  their  pupils  correspond.  Pupils 
from  our  city  or  state  should  write  letters  discussing 
familiar  subjects  to  pupils  of  corresponding  grades  in 
other  cities  or  states.  By  this  means  much  interest 
may  be  created  in  the  manners,  customs,  and  occupa- 
tions of  people  in  various  localities.  Besides  this,  real 
practice  in  letter  writing  is  ahvays  a  valuable  drill  in 
written  expression.  These  letters  should,  of  course,  be 
criticised  by  the  teacher  before  they  are  sent  through 
the  mail,  but  the  superior  wisdom  of  the  teacher  should 
not  be  allowed  to  discourage  the  pupil. 

Reproduction.  —  As  soon  as  pupils  can  write  fairly 
well  they  should  be  required  to  reproduce  from  memory 
the  best  selections  from  then-  readers.  It  is  all  the 
better  if  they  have  committed  to  memory  selections 
which  they  are  asked  to  reproduce.  "Friday  after- 
noon speeches"  are  valuable  in  fixing  correct  words, 
phrases,  clauses,  and  sentences  in  the  minds  of  the 
pupils.  Exercises  of  this  character  should  form  part  of 
every  course  of  study. 


ENGLISH:    LANGUAGE   AND   GRAMMAR  6l 

Selections  memorized  by  the  pupil  or  dictated  by  the 
teacher,  when  written  by  the  pupils,  aid  materially  in 
giving  the  idea  of  the  sentence  and  paragraph.  This 
exercise  will  also  aid  in  teaching  the  correct  use  of 
capital  letters  and  marks  of  punctuation.  In  written, 
as  in  oral,  expression  pupils  should  be  made  to  see 
their  own  mistakes,  and  to  correct  them  as  part  of  the 
recitation. 

Grammar.  —  If  most  of  the  time  now  spent  in  teach- 
ing the  facts  of  grammar  were  spent  in  expressing 
thought,  it  would  not  be  long  before  the  average  high 
school  graduate  could  use  good  English.  A  pupil  can- 
not learn  to  use  good  language  by  reciting  the  rules 
that  govern  forms  of  speech.  Many  pupils  can  recite 
readily  the  rules  of  syntax  and  rapidly  imprison  sen- 
tences in  diagrams,  but  cannot  express  the  most  com- 
monplace event  in  clear,  smooth  English.  Yet,  of 
course,  we  must  know  the  science  of  language  before 
we  can  become  perfect  in  expression.  We  must  know 
the  science  as  well  as  the  art,  for  the  application  of  the 
science  of  expression  constitutes  the  art  of  expression. 

What  we  should  do  is  to  require  the  pupils  to  use 
grammatical  facts  as  soon  as  they  have  learned  them. 
Use  fixes  knowledge.  Pupils  are  not  properly  interested 
in  grammar  unless  they  are  using  their  acquired  knowl- 
edge in  the  construction  of  thoughtful  sentences.  They 
should  recite,  but  they  should  also  create.  Part  of 
every  day  should  be  spent  in  sentence  building  or  in 


62  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

some  other  form  of  composition  work.  Pupils  should 
be  required  to  write  business  letters,  biographies,  de- 
scriptions of  journeys,  narrations  of  events,  as  part  of 
their  work  in  grammar ;  in  short,  they  should  use  their 
knowledge. 

There  is  really  very  little  to  commit  to  memory  in 
English  grammar,  and  therefore  undue  time  should  not 
be  given  to  unimportant  topics. 

Pronouns.  —  Pupils  should  be  thoroughly  drilled  in 
the  use  of  pronouns.  Many  of  the  mistakes  in  writing 
and  in  speaking  arise  from  ignorance  of  their  correct 
use.  But  the  mere  recitation  of  grammatical  rules  that 
govern  their  use  will  not  fix  the  correct  forms  of  pronouns 
in  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  Students  of  grammar  should 
be  required  to  use  all  the  forms  of  pronouns  in  sentences 
and  tell  why  a  certain  form  should  be  used  in  preference 
to  another  form.  They  should  define,  of  course,  but  they 
should  surely  be  required  to  illustrate. 

Personal  pronouns  have  fixed  forms  for  different  uses: 
number  forms,  person  forms,  gender  forms,  and  case 
forms.  These  forms  should  be  mastered  and  their  uses 
exhibited  in  thoughtful  original  sentences. 

Verbs.  —  Irregular  and  auxiliary  verbs  should  be 
treated  in  a  similar  manner.  The  mere  conjugation  of 
irregular  verbs  will  not  fix  their  correct  forms  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils.  Pupils  must  be  led  to  see  the 
correct  use  of  irregular  verbs  through  their  meaning. 


ENGLISH:    LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR          63 

They  must  think  the  correct  forms  of  pronouns  and 
auxiliary  verbs  into  habitual  use  or  they  cannot  be  relied 
upon  at  all  times  to  use  them  correctly. 

The  changes  in  the  form  of  the  verb  to  correspond 
to  changes  in  its  subject  are  very  limited.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  verb  be,  in  the  indicative  mode,  present 
and  past  tenses,  singular  number,  there  are  but  few 
changes  in  the  form  of  the  English  verb  to  denote  per- 
son, tense,  mode,  or  voice.  These  changes  should  be 
learned  and  thought  into  use  by  repeated  drills  in  the 
construction  of  sentences. 

Adjectives.  —  The  adjective  keeps  the  same  form 
whether  joined  to  a  singular  or  to  a  plural  noun.  It  is 
inflected  to  show  degree  only.  Most  adverbs  are  derived 
from  adjectives  and  take  the  same  inflection.  Thus  we 
see  that  the  English  language  is,  comparatively,  an  unin- 
flected  language.  In  the  study  of  adjectives,  as  in  the 
study  of  other  parts  of  speech,  the  teacher  should  re- 
member that  use  fixes  knowledge,  and  that  thoughtful 
practice  in  the  application  of  grammatical  facts  and 
principles  will  result  in  habitual  use  of  correctly  gram- 
matical language. 

We  should  teach  the  essential  facts  of  English  gram- 
mar, but  we  should  also  let  our  major  effort  be  the  con- 
struction of  English,  i.e.  the  power  to  use  good  language 
—  correct  expression. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

UNITED   STATES   HISTORY 

In  teaching  history  the  objects  sought  are  to  cultivate 
the  memory,  impart  useful  information,  stimulate  ethical 
judgment,  and  develop  the  power  of  probable  reasoning ; 
and  these  objects  taken  collectively  produce  what  we 
commonly  call  good  citizenship.  This  good  citizenship 
is,  therefore,  the  paramount  object  in  offering  courses 
in  United  States  history  in  elementary  schools. 

Methods  of  teaching  history  seem  to  vary  more  widely 
than  those  of  teaching  any  other  given  subject,  and  yet 
there  seems  to  be  less  excuse  for  such  variations  than 
for  variations  in  teaching  other  subjects.  If  we  con- 
sider history  a  culture  study,  we  can  say  briefly  that  we 
teach  history  to  build  good  character.  Now  the  applied 
psychology  of  character  building  may  be  briefly  summed 
up  in  these  words :  "  I  see,  I  like,  I  wish  I  were,  I  will 
be." 

The  first  teaching  of  history  should  be  largely  bio- 
graphical, for  in  the  life  of  an  individual  the  young 
student  can  follow  readily  the  right  and  wrong  of  con- 
duct, and  exercise  freely  his  ethical  judgment.  Teachers 
should  not  stop  to  say,  "  You  should  not  like  this,"  or 
"  You  should  not  like  that,"  or  dwell  on  a  religious  cate- 
chism of  rights  and  wrongs,  but  present  facts  of  history 

64 


UNITED   STATES   HISTORY  65 

in  such  a  way  that  the  child  will  see  instantly  that  this 
conduct  is  right  or  that  conduct  is  wrong,  and  then  he 
will  "  see,"  will  "  like,"  will  "  wish  he  were,"  and  will 
"  be  "  a  part  of  the  good  in  the  lives  studied.  Later  the 
teaching  should  lead  to  a  knowledge  of  institutional 
history. 

Topical  Method.  —  We  must  at  this  point  apparently 
digress  from  method  to  curriculum,  and  state  that  it  is 
advisable  to  have  an  elementary  course  somewhere  in 
the  lower  grades,  and  this  work  is  that  which  should  be 
"  largely  biographical."  In  the  eighth,  or  last  year  of 
the  grades,  history  should  be  taken  up  systematically 
by  topics.  For  instance,  in  the  study  of  the  early  ex- 
plorations and  settlements,  assign  to  the  class  such 
topics  as  the  Discoveries,  Explorations,  and  Settlements 
made  in  North  America  by  the  Spanish,  the  English, 
the  French,  and  the  Dutch.  In  the  recitations  develop 
an  outline,  or  have  the  children  develop  it,  and  you  will 
find  that  it  will  appear  about  as  follows :  — 

SPANISH 

1.  Columbus,  1492. 

2.  Ponce  de  Leon. 

3.  Balboa. 

4.  De  Soto,  1541-1542. 

5.  Cabrillo. 

6.  Espejo. 

7.  Menendez,  1565. 


66  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

ENGLISH 

1.  Cabots,  1497-1498. 

2.  Frobisher. 

3.  Drake. 

4.  Raleigh. 

5.  London  Company,  1607. 

6.  Plymouth  Company,  1620. 

FRENCH 

1.  Verrazanni,  1524. 

2.  Cartier. 

3.  Ribault. 

4.  Laudanier. 

5.  Champlain. 

6.  Marquette. 

7.  La  Salle. 

DUTCH 

1.  Henry  Hudson,  1609. 

2.  Adrian  Block. 

The  mastery  of  this  outline  will  require  three  or  four 
weeks'  study.  In  this  assignment  are  found  several 
important  dates  upon  which  rest  the  claims  to  territory 
by  discovery,  by  exploration,  and  by  occupation,  of 
these  nations  within  the  boundaries  of  what  is  now  the 
United  States.  Do  not  require  pupils  to  memorize 
unimportant  dates  or  else  they  will  remember  no  dates. 


UNITED   STATES   HISTORY  67 

This  outline  need  not  be  exactly  as  above  given,  but 
approximately  so.  After  this  comes  the  study  of  the 
intercolonial  wars,  and  the  pupils,  if  taught  as  above 
suggested,  will  more  readily  understand  the  claims  and 
conditions  of  the  various  nations  involved  in  these  inter- 
colonial difficulties.  They  will  readily  develop  an  out- 
line of  this  and  succeeding  periods.  History  should 
be  outlined  in  the  class,  by  the  class,  and  for  the  class. 
History  lessons  should  be  assigned  by  topics,  never  by 
pages. 

Study  of  Wars.  —  The  causes,  the  general  plans  of 
campaign,  perhaps,  and  certainly  the  results  of  wars, 
should  be  known ;  but  wars  should  not  be  the  most  im- 
portant topics  in  history,  for  if  Macaulay  is  right  in 
saying  that  "  the  changes,  the  movements,  and  the  de- 
velopments in  the  life  of  a  people  is  that  people's  his- 
tory," then  many  other  things  should  be  studied  as  well 
as  wars.  However,  every  pupil  should  study  fully,  and 
in  detail,  some  few  important  battles,  that  he  may  know 
something  of  what  actual  war  means. 

Reviews.  —  After  the  historic  events,  somewhat  in  the 
order  of  occurrence,  have  been  covered  in  this  way, 
reviews  should  be  given  in  parallels.  As  an  illustration 
of  that  method  we  would  suggest  that  the  teacher  assign 
for  one  parallel  Financial  Panics ;  for  another,  Slavery ; 
for  another,  Treaties  with  Foreign  Powers ;  for  another, 
Acquisitions  of  Territory,  etc. 


68  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

When  the  pupils  of  the  eighth  grade  have  finished 
the  study  of  history,  they  have  received  some  practical 
benefit  as  well  as  the  intended  culture ;  they  should 
know  something  of  the  institutional  history  of  our  own 
country. 

Culture  Value.  —  History,  if  properly  taught,  is  an 
excellent  culture  study,  and  one  of  its  most  fruitful  les- 
sons is  patriotism.  In  the  study  of  United  States  his- 
tory we  learn  that  five  hundred  years  of  history  have 
become  crystallized  in  our  American  notion  of  patriot- 
ism —  five  hundred  years  of  passionate  struggle  for 
liberty.  Oppressive  forces,  organized  into  institutions, 
have  been  resisted  and  overcome.  Feudalism,  villenage, 
serfdom,  chattel  slavery,  and  constitutional  absolutism 
have,  one  after  another,  gone  down  in  battle.  Free 
towns,  free  men,  and  free  states  have  come  successively 
into  being.  During  this  entire  time  the  whole  western 
world  has  been  a  militant  host.  To  secure  and  main- 
tain the  rights  of  man  thousands  have  died  in  battle,  in 
prison,  and  at  the  stake. 

Speak  of  patriots  and  we  think  of  William  Tell, 
William  the  Silent,  Cromwell,  Mirabeau,  Bolivar,  La- 
fayette, Washington  —  all  men  with  the  sword  in  hand. 
In  the  opening  chapter  of  his  "  French  Revolution," 
Carlyle  wrote :  — 

"  Borne  over  the  Atlantic  to  the  closing  ear  of 
of  Louis,  king  by  the  grace  of  God,  what  sounds 
are  these  —  muffled,  ominous,  new  in  our  cen- 


UNITED   STATES   HISTORY  69 

turies  ?  Boston  harbor  is  black  with  unexpected 
tea;  behold  a  Pennsylvanian  congress  gather; 
and,  ere  long,  on  Bunker  Hill,  Democracy  an- 
nouncing in  rifle  volleys,  death-winged,  under  her 
starry  banner,  to  the  tune  of  '  Yankee-doodle- 
doo,'  that  she  is  born,  and,  whirlwind-like  will 
envelop  the  whole  world." 

For  a  hundred  years,  to  American  children,  Bunker 
Hill  has  been  presented  as  a  type  of  patriotism  in  the 
concrete.  After  the  Civil  War,  new  names  were  added 
to  the  list.  Lincoln  and  Grant  in  the  North,  and  with 
precisely  the  same  sentiment,  Lee  and  Jackson  in  the 
South.  Our  late  war  with  Spain  has  increased  this  list 
still  further. 

As  a  perpetual  stimulus  to  this  emotion  we  have  put 
the  flag  over  our  schoolhouses  and  have  taught  our 
children  to  salute  it,  and  this  is  right,  but  it  is  not  our 
whole  duty  in  the  teaching  of  patriotism. 

The  practical  question  for  us  to  consider  is,  What 
does  it  all  mean,  and  what  is  to  be  the  outcome  of  it  all  ? 
Here  is  a  sentiment  of  tremendous  power,  widespread 
and  deeply  felt  Hitherto,  this  sentiment  has  had  the 
weakness  of  the  old  theology  which  aimed  to  teach  men 
how  to  die.  Shall  this  sentiment  of  patriotism  be  al- 
lowed to  expend  itself  in  mere  effervescence  —  in  Fourth 
of  July  orations,  and  after-dinner  speeches  on  battle 
anniversaries  ?  Shall  it  pride  itself  chiefly  in  patriotic 
ancestry,  or  shall  its  energy  be  transmuted  into  useful 


70  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

work  ?  Shall  not  our  people  be  willing  to  live  for  their 
country  while  waiting  to  die  for  it  ? 

This  great,  independent  nation  composed  of  free  and 
equal  people  will  not  have  to  fight  over  the  old  battles, 
or  to  meet  again  the  old  foes.  The  demands  now  to  be 
made  upon  the  love  and  devotion  of  our  citizens  will 
be  to  meet  new  enemies,  and  will  call  for  new  weapons. 

When  we  have  come  to  know  what  these  new  ene- 
mies are,  we  shall  realize  that  the  work  of  patriots  is  no 
longer  to  be  done  under  the  glamour  of  military  glory ; 
that  the  humblest  citizen  in  the  most  commonplace 
things  may  show  himself  to  be  a  glorious  patriot ;  that 
no  grander  character  ever  wrote  a  mighty  name  across 
the  pages  of  history  than  has  sacrificed  its  desires  in 
humble  but  heroic  services,  perhaps  never  to  be  known. 
The  potentially  great,  whom  circumstances  have  buried 
in  obscurity  instead  of  lifting  into  prominence,  have  been 
legion. 

In  teaching  history  teach  the  problems  of  human  life 
—  that  the  human  race  has  been  gradually  growing 
stronger,  better,  and  wiser.  Train  the  children  in  jus- 
tice, mercy,  purity,  goodness,  faith,  hope,  and  love. 
Teach  them  to  live  for  their  country,  and  sacrifice  for 
the  common  good.  Make  them  see  the  beauty  and 
the  necessity  of  altruism.  In  teaching  history,  BUILD 

CHARACTER.  

"The  lovely  things  men  build  in  the  days  of  strength  are  but  the 
reproduction  of  the  lovely  thoughts  that  were  whispered  in  their 
hearts  in  the  days  of  tender  youth." 


PART    TWO 

MANAGEMENT 


CHAPTER  IX 

FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES 

The  School  an  Organism.  —  The  school  includes  the 
pupils,  the  teacher,  the  parents,  the  trustees,  the  com- 
munity, the  taxpayers,  the  funds,  the  house,  the  appa- 
ratus, and  the  state.  The  purpose  of  these  several 
factors  is  primarily  to  bring  the  pupils  and  the  teacher 
into  cooperation,  and  the  work  of  this  organization  is 
the  school  process.  The  pupils  and  teacher  are  the 
center  of  all  these  diverse  parts.  All  of  these  factors 
should  cooperate  to  one  end :  bringing  the  pupil  from 
the  imperfect  to  the  ideal  state  of  development.  Since 
the  diverse  acts  of  these  several  factors  focus  them- 
selves in  the  one  single  act  for  which  all  acts  are  per- 
formed, namely,  improving  the  child,  the  work  of  the 
school  is  an  organic  process,  the  purpose  of  which  is 
to  serve  the  child's  needs.  This  process  is  the  thing 
to  be  controlled  and  directed. 

School  Management.  —  School  management  is  the 
control  and  direction  of  the  school  process,  and  since 
the  laws  for  this  management  are  based  upon  a  work- 
ing, moving  process  rather  than  a  fixed  or  stationary 
object,  it  is  evident  that  it  cannot  be  externally  imposed 

73 


74  PRACTICAL   PEDAGOGY 

but  is  inherent  in  the  school  process  itself.  Actual 
school  methods  follow  man's  advancement  in  civilization 
and  indeed  are  the  result  of  his  advancement.  Ideal 
school  methods  are  far  in  advance  of  real  school  methods, 
and  the  strain  between  these  two  —  the  real  and  the 
ideal  —  is  continuous  but  perhaps  varying  in  tension. 
This  tension  and  the  forces  producing  it  are  governed 
by  inherent  laws. 

Laws  for  the  government  of  schools,  like  other  laws, 
should  be  based  on  the  consent  or  on  the  approval  of 
the  governed ;  that  is,  laws  of  government  should  be 
inherent  laws.  The  state  itself  proclaims  laws  for  its 
own  governing  and  obeys  these  laws  because  they  are 
inherent  laws. 

Just  rules  are  indorsed  even  by  the  offender,  because 
they  embody  the  requirements  of  his  own  nature.  The 
laws  of  a  school,  therefore,  should  express  the  require- 
ments of  the  pupil's  nature,  and  if  they  are  in  accord- 
ance with  this,  they  will  not  only  be  just,  but  pupils  will 
be  constrained  to  obey  them.  Since  school  laws  are  for 
the  government  of  all  school  factors,  the  pupils  alone 
cannot  prescribe  laws,  but  their  judgment  should 
approve  them. 

Cooperation.  —  All  of  the  complex  factors  of  the 
school  process  should  work  harmoniously.  If  the 
teacher,  who  is  one  of  the  important  factors,  should  neg- 
lect or  antagonize  any  of  these  diverse  forces,  the  school 
would  suffer.  If  the  directors  should  antagonize  or 


75 

counteract  the  teacher  or  any  other  factor  of  the  school, 
evil  results  would  follow.  The  same  is  true  of  any 
other  of  these  various  factors. 

Primarily  the  school  exists  for  the  pupil.  Sometimes 
directors  lose  sight  of  this  fact  and  use  the  school  for 
other  ends,  and  always  in  such  cases  evil  results  are 
sure  to  follow.  The  self-interest  of  those  in  authority 
is  the  most  formidable  obstacle  to  the  just  laws  of  a 
school.  When  some  school  trustee  uses  the  money  of 
the  district  for  his  own  private  ends,  he  is  properly 
branded  a  criminal;  but  when  he  uses  the  school  or 
the  influence  of  the  school  to  further  his  own  interest, 
he  is  not  generally  so  designated.  If  the  trustee,  in 
order  to  use  the  influence  of  the  school  in  his  own  be- 
half, will  drop  a  true  and  tried  teacher  of  valuable 
experience  for  one  that  is  doubtful  and  untried,  he  is 
jeopardizing  the  interests  of  the  pupils,  and  he  may  do 
more  harm  than  the  man  who  appropriates  the  school 
funds  to  his  own  use.  Again,  when  a  school  trustee 
yields  to  local  pressure  and  retains  an  incompetent 
teacher,  he  is  sinning  against  the  children  by  reducing 
the  efficiency  of  their  training.  Yet  the  common  opinion 
of  these  acts  is  so  different  that  he  who  takes  the  money 
from  the  child's  fund  is  called  criminal,  and  he  who 
robs  the  child  of  his  opportunity  may  remain  an  honored 
citizen. 

When  any  factor  of  the  school  process  fails  to  act  in 
accordance  with  the  interests  of  the  school  organism, 
the  action  is  not  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the 


76  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

school,  however  strictly  it  may  be  in  literal  accord  with 
the  school  law  of  the  state.  The  law  of  the  school  — 
the  really  potent  governing  force  —  is  inherent  in  the 
school  process  itself.  One  of  the  best  means  of  secur- 
ing obedience  is  by  consulting  with  pupils  whose  actions 
indicate  that  they  are  inclined  to  be  disobedient.  The 
mere  fact  of  a  teacher's  considering  a  pupil  and  consult- 
ing with  him  will  forestall  any  opposition  and  at  the 
same  time  will  tend  to  make  the  pupil  a  student  of 
school  conduct. 

Importance  and  Source  of  Law.  —  Rational  school 
management  —  management  that  recognizes  these  funda- 
mental principles,  is  better  than  any  direct  moral  in- 
struction, and  as  good  moral  character  is  the  greatest 
purpose  of  the  school,  it  is  quite  evident  that  proper 
management  is  more  important,  even,  than  proper  in- 
struction. These  fundamentals  in  school  management 
are  fundamentals  in  all  management.  These  laws  in 
school  government  are  universal  laws.  The  source  of 
the  origin  of  all  social  and  political  institutions  is  the 
fact  that  the  real  man  seeks  to  become  the  ideal  man, 
and  that  the  institutions  which  he  composes  naturally 
formulate  such  laws  as  express  his  nature.  The  organi- 
zation compels  its  individual  members  to  conform  to 
the  general  rule  of  action,  and  therefore,  at  base,  all 
government  is  democratic. 

A  school  may  be  crushed  into  obedience  by  the  power 
of  the  teacher,  but  such  obedience  is  really  disorder. 


FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  77 

A  teacher  who  so  governs  must  have  the  erroneous 
idea  that  the  school  is  his  private  enterprise;  that  he 
must  be  obeyed  and  his  pleasure  and  convenience  con- 
sulted ;  that  the  school  exists  for  his  benefit.  The 
fact  is,  that  the  pupils  originally  organized  the  school 
and  that  to-day  the  school  is  organized  in  sympathy 
for  pupils  who  are  not  able  to  organize  and  maintain 
their  own  schools;  that  while  the  teacher  is  an  impor- 
tant factor,  the  pupils  compose  an  indispensable  factor. 
It  is  not  intended  to  argue  that  school  management 
should  be  turned  over  to  the  whims  of  pupils,  but  it 
is  asserted  that  school  rules  of  management  should  be 
in  accord  with  the  judgment  of  pupils  as  well  as  with 
the  judgment  of  parents  and  teacher,  and  should  express 
their  nature.  The  pupil  government  established  in 
many  cities  is  of  value  because  it  secures  the  students' 
approval  of  all  law,  and  is  thus  far  founded  on  cor- 
rect principles.  Whether  this  method  of  managing 
schools  can  be  properly  employed  depends  on  whether 
the  rights  of  all  are  considered,  i.e.  whether  the  rights 
of  the  pupils  and  the  teacher,  as  well  as  the  rights  of 
all  other  factors  of  the  school  in  question,  receive  due 
consideration.  As  the  value  of  an  institution  depends 
upon  the  character  of  the  individuals  composing  it, 
the  value  of  a  school  depends  on  the  character  of  the 
teacher  and  pupils,  on  the  parents  and  trustees,  and 
the  community  and  state  in  general. 

Our  whole  social  fabric  is  an  organization  to  promote 
man's  purpose  to  realize  another  self  and  may,  therefore, 


78  PRACTICAL   PEDAGOGY 

be  termed  a  complex  school  to  elevate  man  from  the 
real  to  the  ideal  conditions  of  life.  All  rules  or  laws  of 
management  in  the  social  fabric  that  are  just  are  in- 
herent in  the  body  politic,  and  the  school  itself  is  the 
more  or  less  complex  organization  to  assist  the  pupil  to 
realize  his  other  self;  to  develop  from  the  real  to  the 
ideal  and  just.  Just  school  rules  and  laws  of  govern- 
ment are  inherent  in  the  school  organization. 

School  laws  that  are  based  upon  these  fundamental 
principles  are  just  and  equitable.  School  management 
governed  by  these  principles  will  be  successful,  for  each 
of  the  several  factors  will  be  given  due  consideration, 
but  impelled  by  the  whole  organization  to  cooperate  in 
the  school  process. 


"  Order  is  heaven's  first  law,"  and  it  is  scarcely  more  essential  to 
the  harmony  of  heaven  than  it  is  to  the  happiness  and  success  of 
the  school.  —  David  Page. 

"  Discipline  is  the  result  of  training  and  study.  In  physical  cul- 
ture it  gives  a  man  control  of  his  muscles,  so  that  they  are  obedient 
to  his  will.  In  mental  culture  it  gives  him  control  of  his  intellectual 
powers,  so  that  he  is  able  under  all  circumstances  to  do  the  best 
work  possible.  In  moral  training  discipline  gives  a  man  such  con- 
trol of  himself  bodily  and  mentally  that  he  can  resist  temptation, 
discern  good  from  evil,  and  make  the  best  choice." 


CHAPTER  X 

CLASS  MANAGEMENT 

THE  personality  of  the  teacher,  —  his  presence,  —  the 
impression  which  the  teacher  makes  upon  those  with 
whom  he  comes  in  contact,  is  undoubtedly  the  greatest 
force  in  class  management.  There  are,  however,  many 
duties  in  the  management  of  classes  which  are  common 
to  every  schoolroom,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  best 
methods  employed  by  successful  teachers  in  class  man- 
agement will  be  an  aid  to  any  teacher,  whether  his 
personality  makes  management  easy  or  whether  it 
makes  it  difficult. 

Classification.  —  First  among  the  many  duties  involved 
in  the  management  of  classes  is  the  arrangement  of  the 
pupils  in  the  grades  for  which  they  are  fitted.  This  is 
usually  denominated  classification  of  pupils.  In  all  well- 
regulated  schools  the  teacher  will  find  that  his  prede- 
cessor has  provided  a  record  of  the  classification  of 
pupils  and  it  is  encumbent  upon  him  to  follow  his  prede- 
cessor's recorded  classification.  Unless  he  should  find, 
after  careful  and  continued  investigation,  that  some 
part  of  his  classification  is  radically  wrong,  he  should 
adhere  to  it  strictly. 

79 


80  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

Into  every  school  will  come  some  pupils  who  have 
not  been  classified.  They  will  bring  various  statements 
from  schools  which  they  have  attended,  and  these 
will  be  supplemented  by  added  information  from  the 
parent  or  guardian.  In  such  cases  it  is  well  for  the 
teacher  to  be  careful  and  deliberate  before  making  a 
permanent  classification  of  the  pupil.  It  is  especially 
important  that  he  shall  refrain  from  expressing  any 
adverse  criticism.  The  tactful  teacher  will  not  only 
succeed  in  classifying  the  pupil,  but  by  due  counsel  and 
advice  he  will  satisfy  the  pupil  and  the  parents  that  the 
classification  is  the  best  one  that  could  be  made  for  the 
pupil's  welfare. 

Program.  —  No  thoughtful  teacher  will  attempt  to 
begin  school  without  a  carefully  prepared  program,  both 
of  study  and  recitation.  This  program  will  necessarily 
be  tentative,  but  the  teacher  should  either  follow  his 
program  or  change  it  so  that  it  can  be  followed.  By 
following  the  program  is  meant  beginning  the  classes 
on  time  and  closing  the  exercises  on  time.  It  is  an  item 
of  no  small  moment  that  the  teacher  be  on  time  in 
teaching :  that  he  is  punctual  in  beginning,  punctual  in 
closing,  punctual  in  everything.  Punctuality  is  an  essen- 
tial element  in  the  law  of  order,  and  therefore  should  be 
cultivated  in  the  student  body.  The  best  way  to  do  this 
is  for  the  teacher  himself  to  be  an  example  of  punctual- 
ity and  insist  that  pupils  shall  be  punctual  in  all  things. 

In  making  a  program  due  care  should  be  taken  to 


CLASS   MANAGEMENT 


8l 


provide  proper  length  of  recitations  and  to  avoid  crowd- 
ing recitation  periods  too  close  together.  The  recitation 
period  in  the  grades  should  vary  in  length  from  ten 
minutes  in  the  primary  grades  to  thirty  minutes  in  the 
grammar  grades. 

No  teacher  should  adopt  a  program  until  he  has 
modified  it  to  suit  his  individual  notion  and  to  comply 
with  the  particular  conditions  in  the  school  where  it  is 
to  be  used.  This  does  not  imply  that  there  is  no  general 
plan  in  common  use,  but  that  details,  so  long  as  they 
violate  no  pedagogical  principle,  may  be  arranged  to 
suit  the  local  conditions. 

The  following  program  is  only  a  suggestive  one,  cop- 
ied from  the  45th  Annual  Report,  Department  of  Public 
Instruction,  New  York,  1903,  Appendix  4.  This  pro- 
gram for  a  school  arranged  in  four  classes,  by  shorten- 
ing a  few  recitation  periods,  can  easily  be  so  amended 
as  to  provide  four  periods  for  individual  instruction. 

PROGRAM 


TlMB 

FIRST  YEAR 

THIRD  YEAR 

SIXTH  YEAR 

EIGHTH  YEAR 

9.00  to   9.10 

Opening  ex. 

Opening  ex. 

Opening  ex. 

Opening  ex. 

9.10       9.30 

Reading 

Reading 

Reading 

Reading 

9.30      950 

Copying 

Reading 

Reading 

Reading 

9.50         o.io 

Employment 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

o.io        0.25 

Dismissed 

Arithmetic 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

0.25      0.35 

Recess 

Recess 

Recess 

Recess 

0.35      0.45 

Number 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

o  45         i-OS 

Drawing 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

1.05         1.25 

Employment 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

History 

l.»5         1-45 

Dismissed 

Reading,  Spelling 

Arithmetic 

History 

1.45            2.00 

English 

Geography 

History 

82 


PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 
PROGRAM  —  continued 


TIME 

FIRST  YEAR 

THIRD  YEAR 

SIXTH  YEAR 

EIGHTH  YEAR 

I.OO  " 

1.05 

Singing  or  other  exercises 

1.05  " 

1.20 

Reading 

Reading,  Spelling 

Geography 

English 

1.20  " 

1.30 

Copying 

Reading,  Spelling 

Geography 

English 

1.30  " 

1-45 

Drawing* 

Drawing* 

Drawing* 

Drawing* 

1.45  " 

2.00 

Physiology  * 

Physiology  * 

Geography 

English 

2.00  " 

2.2O 

Dismissed 

Miscellaneous 

Phys.,  English 

English 

Writing 

«-35  " 

«-35 
a-45 

Recess 

Recess 

Recess 

Recess 

2.45  " 

2-55 

General  lessons 

2-5S  " 

3.00 

Miscellaneous 

Geography 

Phys.,  English 

Civil  government 

3.00" 

3-'5 

Tracing 

Geography 

Phys.,  English* 

Phys.,  Civ.  gov.* 

3-15  " 

3-3° 

Dismissed 

Geography 

Spelling 

Civil  government 

Dismissed 

3-3°  " 
3-45  " 

3-45 
4.00 

Spelling 

Special  work 

1  Drawing  :  two  or  three  classes  ;  two  recitations  a  week. 

1  Physiology  :  two  classes  ;  two  or  three  recitations  a  week. 

8  English  :  two  classes  ;  three  recitations  a  week  ;  more  if  possible. 

4  Civil  government  may  be  alternated  with  some  other  study. 

The  second  program  (on  page  83)  is  a  suggestive 
program  prepared  for  a  crowded  country  school  in  which 
there  are  fifty  pupils,  and  recitations  are  required  in  each 
of  the  eight  grades. 

Class  Instruction.  —  The  first  school  consisted  of  the 
pupil  and  the  teacher ;  but  after  schools  became  numer- 
ous a  school  consisted  of  the  pupils  and  a  teacher.  Ne- 
cessity demands  that  one  teacher  must  instruct  many 
pupils.  This  kind  of  instruction  is  called  class  instruc- 
tion, and  this  is  the  kind  of  instruction  in  almost  uni- 
versal use.  It  is  in  general  use  because  of  the  many 
advantages  it  offers  over  individual  instruction  as  well 


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84  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

as  because  of  the  fact  that  purely  individual  instruction 
is  impossible  in  the  public  schools. 

When  the  class  is  called  to  recite,  the  teacher  should 
announce  the  topic  or  ask  the  questions  and  then  desig- 
nate a  pupil  to  recite.  If  for  any  reason  the  teacher 
requires  another  pupil  to  recite  on  the  same  topic  or 
question,  each  member  of  the  class  will  be  benefited  by 
listening  to  the  treatment  of  the  subject  from  the  differ- 
ent view  points  of  the  reciting  pupils.  When  all  pupils 
have  recited,  if  there  is  any  added  light  to  be  thrown 
on  the  subject,  the  teacher  gives  additional  instruction 
and  each  member  of  the  class  is  benefited  by  this  added 
information;  so  that  when  class  instruction  is  properly 
given,  twenty  or  thirty  pupils  have  investigated  the  sub- 
ject from  several  individual  view  points  and  the  time 
occupied  is  not  much  greater  than  that  which  would  be 
required  for  one  pupil  to  recite  by  the  individual  method. 

Individual  Instruction.  —  If  teachers  follow  a  pro- 
gram of  continuous  recitations  throughout  the  school, 
day,  many  pupils,  through  lack  of  application  or  proper 
direction  from  the  teacher,  will  fail  to  make  thorough 
preparation  and  in  course  of  time  fall  behind  the  class. 
Frequently  teachers  remain  after  school  to  help  these 
delinquents  and  to  try  to  get  them  to  strive  more  ear- 
nestly to  keep  up  with  the  class.  Frequently  this  keep- 
ing in  after  school  is  an  annoyance  to  the  parents  and 
very  inconvenient  for  the  teacher,  while  it  is  usually  in- 
jurious to  the  child. 


CLASS  MANAGEMENT  8$ 

If  teachers  have  no  definite  periods  during  the  regu- 
lar school  hours  at  which  individual  instruction  may  be 
given,  these  pupils  who  are  falling  behind  are  apt  to 
become  discouraged  and  fail  to  make  proper  effort. 
Every  teacher  should  so  arrange  his  program  that 
there  will  be  a  period  between  recitations  during  which 
he  may  inspect  the  seat  work  of  the  pupils,  and  during 
this  inspection,  whenever  it  is  necessary,  he  should  give 
such  encouragement  or  instruction  to  individual  pupils  as 
will  stimulate  them  to  try  and  maintain  their  class 
standing.  This  individual  instruction  should  be  pro- 
vided for  as  a  regular  part  of  the  day's  teaching,  and 
not  as  an  occasional  or  accidental  exercise. 

The  Batavia  Plan.  —  In  1898  Superintendent  John 
Kennedy  of  Batavia,  New  York,  reported  to  the  Board 
of  Education  that  an  additional  teacher  was  needed  in 
the  grades.  The  Board  were  willing  to  provide  an  extra 
teacher,  but  all  the  schoolrooms  were  occupied.  One 
of  the  schoolrooms  was  very  large  and  had  a  seating 
capacity  for  sixty  or  seventy  pupils.  This  condition 
suggested  to  the  superintendent  that  as  an  expedient 
they  might  place  two  teachers  in  this  room  and  have 
one  keep  the  room  and  help  the  pupils  with  their 
studies  while  the  other  conducted  recitations.  Upon 
his  recommendation  the  board  so  provided.  The  suc- 
cess of  this  plan  was  so  pronounced  that  other  large 
rooms  in  the  Batavia  schools  were  similarly  organized, 
and  in  each  instance  exceptionally  good  results  followed. 


86  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

After  this  the  whole  system  of  the  Batavia  city  schools 
was  organized  in  such  a  way  that  the  teachers  employed 
half  their  time  in  class  recitations  and  half  in  individual 
instruction.  This  movement  attracted  the  attention  of 
educators  throughout  the  whole  country,  and  many  school 
systems  have  copied  the  principal  features  of  the  Batavia 
plan. 

It  is  not  here  asserted  that  this  proportion  of  class 
instruction  and  individual  instruction  is  the  proper  one, 
but  without  doubt  proper  school  management  would 
include  some  individual  instruction  given  in  a  regular 
and  systematic  way  according  to  a  definitely  arranged 
program. 

Tactics.  —  In  the  good  old  days  now  nearly  forgotten 
the  teacher  called  in  metallic  tones,  "Third  reader  class ! " 
"Geography  class!"  or  "Mental  arithmetic  class!"  etc., 
and  a  shuffling  of  feet  and  slouching  forward  to  the 
long  recitation  bench  followed.  To-day  many  teachers 
are  advanced  but  a  few  degrees  beyond  such  methods. 
They  have  learned  certain  signals  and  tactics  and  use 
them  in  a  lifeless  manner.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  hear 
the  teacher  say  in  a  monotone,  "  B  class  in  reading  rise ! 
pass !  be  seated !  "  without  ever  giving  any  attention  to 
whether  the  signals  are  being  obeyed  accurately  or  dis- 
regarded. Whatever  the  signals  in  class  tactics,  they 
should  be  given  in  a  quiet,  yet  distinct,  well-punctuated 
manner,  and  the  teacher's  eye  should  note  accurately 
that  one  signal  has  been  promptly  and  quietly  obeyed 


CLASS  MANAGEMENT  87 

before  another  is  given.  Signals  should  always  be 
given  in  a  pleasant,  proper  tone  of  voice.  If  the  teacher 
designates  the  classes  and  gives  taps  as  signals,  a  lead 
pencil  is  a  far  better  instrument  for  tapping  than  a 
hammer.  Signals  should  be  given  so  as  not  to  attract 
the  attention  of  pupils  who  are  studying  or  to  startle 
the  pupils  who  are  expected  to  obey  the  command, 
and  certainly  not  in  such  a  manner  as  to  alarm  the  com- 
munity. 

Seat  Habits.  —  The  teacher  should  assume  and  the 
pupils  expect  that  non-reciting  pupils  should  so  demean 
themselves  that  they  will  occasion  no  annoyance  to  any 
one  in  the  schoolroom.  But  unless  students  are  drilled 
in  their  seat  habits  this  conduct  will  not  be  the  rule. 
Order  is  the  first  condition  to  active  cooperation  in 
school,  and  the  laws  of  order  involve  the  law  of  silence. 

Pupils  should  not  be  permitted  to  indulge  in  the 
practice  of  "  lip  study."  There  is  no  more  reason  why 
pupils  should  use  their  lips  in  whispered  tones  while 
studying  than  that  they  should  repeat  the  words  aloud. 

If  it  is  argued  that  the  student  body  will  soon  become 
so  accustomed  to  the  lip  study  that  they  will  not  be 
annoyed  thereby,  it  might  be  argued  with  equal  force 
that  the  same  student  body  would  become  accustomed 
to  the  noise  of  studying  aloud.  Neither  of  these  posi- 
tions is  tenable.  All  unnecessary  noise  in  the  school- 
room creates  friction  and  should  be  eliminated. 

Perhaps  with  many  pupils  the  real  reason  for  per- 


88  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

sisting  in  lip  study  is  that  when  lip  study  prevails,  it  is 
very  difficult  for  the  teacher  to  know  whether  the  pupil 
is  whispering  to  his  neighbor  or  whether  he  is  studying 
his  lesson. 

It  need  not  be  argued  that  whispering  is  an  annoying 
and  needless  evil  habit  in  the  schoolroom.  It  usually 
occurs  in  an  annoying  manner  when  seat  mates  become 
chummy.  Whenever  seat  mates  or  pupils  sitting  near 
each  other  become  so  chummy  that  their  fondness  for 
each  other  detracts  their  attention  from  study,  and  their 
attention  to  each  other  attracts  the  attention  of  the  class, 
the  teacher  should  separate  them. 

The  attitude  of  reciting  pupils  should  be  one  of  com- 
posure and  thoughtfulness.  This  does  not  preclude  a 
spirit  of  enthusiasm,  but  the  violent  snapping  of  fingers 
and  waving  of  hands  sometimes  witnessed  during  a  reci- 
tation is  more  properly  physical  exercise  than  mental 
drill.  If  the  teacher  were  partially  deaf,  it  might  be 
necessary  for  a  pupil  to  make  considerable  noise  in 
order  to  attract  his  attention  and  gain  permission  to 
recite.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  teacher  is  so  nearly 
blind  as  not  to  be  able  to  see  the  pupil's  hand  when  it  is 
stationary,  it  might  be  permissible  for  the  pupil  to  wave 
his  hand,  even  frantically,  to  gain  the  teacher's  atten- 
tion; but  a  teacher  who  has  nofmal  sense  of  sight  and 
hearing  is  inexcusable  if  he  gets  into  the  habit  of  allow- 
ing the  recitation  period  to  be  diverted  from  its  real 
purpose  —  thoughtful  expression  —  to  that  of  violent 
physical  exercise.  There  should  be  a  time  for  calis- 


CLASS   MANAGEMENT  89 

thenics,  but  these  exercises  do  not  properly  form  part 
of  the  ordinary  recitation. 

Neatness. — The  best  results  cannot  be  obtained  if  the 
schoolroom  is  not  kept  in  a  neat,  orderly  manner.  The 
ethical  effect  of  an  attractive,  well-kept  schoolroom  is 
not  to  be  overlooked.  A  teacher  who  would  allow  his 
own  desk,  books,  and  papers  to  become  disarranged  — 
who  does  not  keep  himself  and  his  schoolroom  property 
in  perfect  order  —  has  no  moral  right  to  insist  upon 
great  neatness  in  the  class  habits  of  his  pupils.  The 
teacher  should  be  equally  neat.  No  work  should  be 
placed  on  the  board  in  a  slovenly  manner;  no  work 
should  be  left  on  the  board  unless  it  is  neat  work,  and 
then  only  when  it  is  to  be  used  at  some  subsequent  time. 
It  is  easy  to  keep  the  blackboard  erased;  in  fact,  easier 
and  more  economical  than  to  keep  it  rilled  with  awk- 
ward figures  and  scrawling  letters.  It  is  easier  to  keep 
the  floor  free  from  scraps  of  paper  and  crayon  than  to 
keep  it  littered.  Pupils  will  delight  in  caring  for  these 
little  details  of  neatness  provided  the  teacher  leads  by 
his  example.  When  the  teacher's  desk,  the  blackboard, 
and  the  floor  are  kept  in  a  neat  and  tidy  condition,  it 
is  no  trouble,  and  in  fact  is  a  pleasure,  to  a  majority  of 
pupils  to  keep  their  desks  and  their  books  in  a  similarly 
tidy  condition.  If  such  habits  of  neatness  can  be  incul- 
cated,—  and  they  can  easily  be  inculcated, — the  pupils 
have  received  a  lasting  benefit,  and  the  burden  of  class 
management  will  have  been  greatly  reduced. 


90  PRACTICAL   PEDAGOGY 

Grades. — The  grades  which  are  entered  upon  the 
pupil's  monthly  report  card,  and  form  a  part  of  the  per- 
manent record  of  the  school,  should  be  based  upon 
progress  in  the  class  determined  largely  by  daily  recita- 
tion. Examinations  as  a  means  of  promotion  in  ele- 
mentary schools  should  not  be  employed.  If  the 
teacher  who  hears  the  pupil  recite  each  day  in  the 
month  does  not  know  before  examination  whether 
the  pupil  has  made  his  grade,  he  does  not  know  after 
the  examination.  Examinations  are,  however,  valuable 
as  a  review  and  as  a  test  of  the  teacher's  work.  But 
when  examinations  are  used  as  a  test  for  promotion,  and 
results  are  issued  in  per  cent,  it  is  quite  difficult  to 
understand  how  Johnnie,  who  made  an  average  of 
69.1%,  and  therefore  did  not  pass,  is  much  below  Susie, 
who  made  an  average  of  exactly  70%,  and  therefore 
passed.  Class  standing  should  be  recorded  on  report 
cards  by  rank.  A  pupil  is  either  good,  bad,  or  indif- 
ferent, and  may  be  so  designated;  but  the  accurate 
distinction  between  the  scholarship  of  pupils  whose 
averages  vary  only  a  few  hundredths  requires  keener 
discernment  than  the  ordinary  teacher  possesses. 

Reviews.  —  Reviews  are,  perhaps,  the  most  beneficial 
recitation,  because  they  recall  and  deepen  concepts  and 
memory  images  that  the  pupils  have  acquired,  and  there- 
fore are  permanent  in  their  results. 

Ethics. — Thedemocratic  organization  of  the  school  fac- 
tors places  each  student  upon  equality  with  every  other 


CLASS   MANAGEMENT  91 

student,  and  every  student  should  have  a  proper  regard 
for  each  of  his  fellow-students.  No  less  essential  is  it 
that  the  teacher  should  have  proper  regard  for  each 
and  every  pupil.  This  proper  regard  for  others  is 
manifested  in  courteous  treatment  and  consideration, 
and  its  expression  in  the  aggregate  is  termed  politeness. 
True  politeness  is  based  upon  appreciation  of  our  fel- 
lows, but  the  expression  which  we  call  politeness  is 
often  largely  a  matter  of  form.  Pupils  may  have 
proper  regard  for  fellow-pupils,  and  yet  their  intercourse 
with  each  other  and  their  conduct  toward  each  other 
might  not  appear  polite.  It  is  a  function  of  the  school 
organization  to  teach  habits  of  politeness ;  to  require 
each  member  of  the  school  to  be  polite  toward  each 
other  member  of  the  school  community.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  teacher  to  be  an  example  of  politeness  and  to 
lead  the  pupils  to  form  habits  of  politeness. 

The  complex  organism  of  school  is  perpetuated  only 
by  the  cooperation  of  the  various  members.  It  is  es- 
sential that  the  relation  of  each  factor  to  each  other 
factor  and  to  the  whole  organization  be  a  truthful  rela- 
tion ;  that  each  expression  of  the  different  members  of 
the  student  body  be  a  truthful  expression ;  that  each 
student  understands  clearly  that  he  owes  it  to  the 
student  body  to  be  truthful  in  all  his  communications. 
This  would  imply  refraining  from  any  dishonesties  in 
recitation,  in  review,  in  examination,  and  in  all  the 
school  exercises. 

Truthfulness  includes  all   forms  of  fair  and  honest 


92  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

dealing  and  is  essential  to  unity  in  any  organization. 
If  the  school  organization  can  cultivate  habits  of  truth- 
fulness, habits  of  fair  and  honest  dealing,  its  value  is 
permanent. 

Weakness  is  the  penalty  for  inaction ;  strength  the 
reward  of  effort.  In  the  school  organization  the 
weaker  pupil  knows  that  he  must  exert  himself  or  else 
he  will  either  delay  the  progress  of  the  class  or  fall  be- 
hind. He  knows  that  he  must  be  industrious  or  the 
penalty  will  follow,  and  the  school  organization  under 
the  direction  of  the  teacher  seeks  to  cultivate  industry. 
A  school  is  not  a  place  of  entertainment,  but  a  work- 
shop. Its  purpose  is  to  do  —  to  do  in  order  to  grow. 
Pupils  should  be  taught  that  work  is  not  drudgery, 
but  development ;  not  degrading,  but  ennobling.  The 
very  object  of  the  schoolroom  is  industry  —  effort  — 
effort  to  lift  the  pupil  from  the  real  to  the  ideal.  The 
whole  purpose  of  the  school  is  ethical.  It  is  intended 
to  develop  the  pupils  by  cultivating  the  intellectual 
activities  and  the  emotional  and  volitional  experiences. 
School  life  is  really  a  transition  from  the  family  to  the 
larger,  more  complex  social  life  of  the  world. 

A  strict  sense  of  justice  should  characterize  every 
act  of  the  teacher  in  the  schoolroom  and  should  guide 
the  pupils  in  their  conduct.  Herbert  Spencer  has  said 
in  this  connection  that  "  every  man  has  freedom  to  do 
as  he  will,  provided  he  infringes  not  on  the  equal  free- 
dom of  any  other  man."  A  clear  understanding  of 
this  principle  will  project  into  the  school-life  lines  of 


CLASS  MANAGEMENT  93 

conduct  which  pupils  will  by  their  own  natures  be  im- 
pelled to  follow.  Justice  impels  us  to  respect  the 
rights  of  others.  In  the  larger  social  organism  —  the 
state  —  the  member  who  does  not  respect  the  rights  of 
other  members  finds  himself  antagonized  by  the  whole 
organism,  usually  resulting  in  punishment,  unless  the 
unruly  member  reforms  and  revises  his  actions.  In  the 
class  any  misconduct  is  an  infringement  on  the  rights 
of  the  other  members  and  is  honestly  resented  by  them. 
This  disapproval  of  the  class  is  the  strongest  controlling 
power  for  discipline. 

When  any  foreign  power  infringes  upon  the  right  of 
our  country,  our  sense  of  justice  is  outraged.  It  is  also 
aroused  and  intensified.  Intensified  justice  constitutes 
active  patriotism.  This  may  be  occasioned  by  injustice 
to  our  country  from  a  foreign  power  or  from  one  or  more 
of  our  own  citizens.  Patriotism  impels  us  to  fight  for 
our  country  or  to  live  for  our  country  —  to  see  that 
our  home  land  receives  justice.  This  principle  can  be 
developed  by  proper  class  management. 

Pupils  not  only  pass  from  the  family  life  into  school 
membership  and  from  school  membership  into  citizen- 
ship within  the  nation,  but  they  also  pass  into  a  world 
citizenship.  Altruism  is  based  upon  this  world  citizen, 
ship  and  is  higher  than  patriotism.  While  patriotism 
impels  us  to  respect  the  rights  of  others,  altruism  impels 
us  to  promote  the  rights  of  others,  to  seek  for  the  good 
of  others.  Justice  may  be  stern  and  exacting;  the 
patriot  will  defend  the  rights  of  his  country  in  battle,  at 


94  PRACTICAL   PEDAGOGY 

home,  or  at  the  ballot  box ;  the  altruist  will  sacrifice  self 
for  the  good  of  others.  He  is  given  to  the  exercise  of 
kindness,  gentleness,  mercy,  and  love,  but  in  the  end 
these  have  more  value  to  the  giver  than  to  him  who 
receives.  Not  only  should  class  management  develop  a 
spirit  of  justice  and  patriotism,  but  it  should  also  develop 
a  spirit  of  kindness,  gentleness,  mercy,  love  —  it  should 
lead  to  altruism. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  TEACHER 

THE  secret  of  success  in  the  schoolroom  lies  almost 
wholly  in  the  spirit  of  the  teacher.  Knowledge  of  sub- 
ject-matter and  skill  in  methods  are  added  advantages. 
A  knowledge  of  the  history  of  educational  thought  or 
any  other  professional  training  makes  possible  better 
teaching  and  insures  greater  success  in  the  schoolroom ; 
but  after  all,  aside  from  the  student  body,  the  greatest 
factor  for  good  is  the  proper  spirit  and  character  of  the 
teacher. 

Personality.  —  Good  physical,  mental,  and  moral  qual- 
ities of  the  teacher  are  essential.  No  teacher  should  be 
employed  who  has  any  physical  defect  which  would  in 
any  way  influence  his  work  or  detract  from  his  useful- 
ness as  an  example.  A  teacher  should  have  a  healthy, 
well-developed  body.  Physically  he  should  be  at  least 
not  defective. 

The  mental  qualities  of  the  teacher  are,  however, 
more  important  than  the  physical  qualities.  Not  only 
should  a  teacher  have  a  mind  capable  of  understanding 
text-book  information,  but  he  should  have  a  mind  so 
alert  that  he  will  be  able  to  make  his  knowledge  an 
instrument  of  intellectual  culture. 

95 


96  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

Industry.  —  "  In  the  school,  as  elsewhere,  good,  hon- 
est toil  is  a  remedy  for  many  of  those  ills  that  come 
where  idleness  and  looseness  prevail.  Every  boy  who 
does  a  piece  of  work  thoroughly  and  completely  is  a 
different  boy  from  what  he  was  before." l 

As  industry  is  an  essential  in  class  management  it 
should  be  exemplified  in  the  teacher.  Pupils  cannot 
continue  to  grow  if  placed  under  the  watchful  care  of  a 
teacher  who  has  ceased  to  be  a  student.  Neither  can 
they  develop  habits  of  industry  under  the  guidance  of 
one  who  is  not  industrious.  It  is  frequently  asserted, 
and  sometimes  truthfully  asserted,  that  the  teacher  is 
inclined  to  be  inactive  and  lazy.  When  this  is  the  case, 
the  individual  should  be  classed  as  a  school  keeper  in 
contradistinction  to  school  teacher.  An  inactive  person 
cannot  lead,  cannot  draw  out,  cannot  educate. 

Integrity.  —  In  all  matters  it  is  essential  that  the 
teacher  be  not  only  honest,  but  that  he  should  possess 
integrity.  Integrity  reaches  farther  than  honesty.  A 
business  man  may  take  advantage  of  the  conditions  and 
gain  profit  at  the  expense  of  others.  He  will  still  be 
called  honest,  but  his  action  has  not  been  characterized 
by  integrity.  The  teacher  should  exemplify  in  his  con-, 
duct  the  principles  of  integrity. 

Cheerfulness.  —  One  of  the  most  distressing  sights  is 
that  of  a  class  of  bright,  active,  happy  pupils  under  the 
direction  of  a  nagging,  unhappy  teacher.     Above  all 
1  Samuel  T,  Dutton. 


THE  TEACHER  97 

things,  he  who  aspires  to  teach  should  possess  a  happy 
disposition.  School  boards  frequently  jest  about  em- 
ploying the  best-looking  teachers,  but  there  is  more 
philosophy  than  foolishness  in  such  selections ;  not  that 
a  pretty  face  is  indicative  of  power  to  teach,  but  a  face 
that  reveals  a  happy  disposition  is  evidence  of  one  of 
the  most  important  qualifications  of  a  teacher.  Good 
health  and  a  happy  disposition,  with  a  bright  mind  and 
a  lofty  purpose,  are  essential  qualifications.  Beauty  is 
not  essential,  but  intelligence  and  happiness  should  be 
written  in  the  face  of  a  true  teacher. 

A  teacher  should  also  possess  patience  and  sympa- 
thy. Perhaps  sympathy  is  the  strongest  element  in  the 
life  of  a  teacher.  The  heart  of  the  child  will  respond 
quickly  to  loving  words  or  kind  deeds,  but  a  teacher 
who  is  not  sympathetic  need  not  expect  his  pupils  to  be 
responsive.  A  teacher  should  possess  patience,  but  he 
should  combine  this  with  firmness.  His  conduct  should 
display  an  abiding  interest  in  the  welfare  of  each  indi- 
vidual pupil,  and  he  should  see  their  faults  as  improper 
growth  in  character  which  should  be  eliminated  by  the 
cultivation  of  proper  habits.  His  firmness  should  insist 
that  correct  habits  be  formed  by  the  pupils,  but  insist- 
ence should  not  in  this  case  amount  to  severity. 

The  teacher  should  possess  serenity  of  disposition. 
If  a  mischievous  pupil  can  by  "  habitual  forgetfulness  " 
in  matters  of  conduct  annoy  the  teacher,  it  is  quite 
probable  that  he  will  continue  in  this  habit.  The  teacher 
should  be  so  adjusted  mentally  that  his  equilibrium  will 


98  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

not  be  disturbed  by  every  schoolroom  excitement 
When  a  teacher  allows  himself  to  fret,  he  loses  thereby 
the  greater  power  of  reason,  and  surely  he  needs  all  of 
his  faculties  in  the  schoolroom.  Teachers  should 
remember  that  power  works  with  ease;  weakness  fret- 
continually.  The  teacher  who  is  not  patriotic  has  not 
a  sense  of  justice  high  enough  to  be  of  great  value  as 
a  leader  of  children.  Not  only  should  a  teacher  be 
patriotic,  but  he  should  be  broad  enough  in  his  sympathy 
and  deep  enough  in  his  convictions  to  be  altruistic. 

Habits.  —  No  person  is  prepared  to  teach  who  has  not 
acquired  proper  habits.  Indeed,  the  process  of  educa- 
tion is  a  process  of  forming  habits  —  habits  of  thought, 
habits  of  politeness,  habits  of  conduct,  habits  of  integ- 
rity. The  uneducated  person  has  not  a  trained  mind ; 
that  is,  he  has  not  acquired  proper  habits  of  thought 
He  is  doubtless  uncouth ;  he  has  not  formed  habits  of 
politeness.  If  he  is  truthful,  he  has  been  educated  in 
the  home  until  he  has  formed  the  habit  of  truthfulness. 
No  other  factor  in  education  is  so  important  as  habit. 
If  habit  could  be  taken  out  of  our  civilization,  instead 
of  order  and  system  we  would  have  disorder  and  anarchy. 
Now,  in  youth  we  own  our  habits,  later  in  life  we  are 
owned  by  our  habits.  Therefore  the  person  who  has 
arrived  at  maturity  without  having  formed  good  habits 
is  not  a  fit  person  for  an  example  in  the  schoolroom. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  enumerate  here  the  bad  habits 
in  the  list  of  "  don'ts,"  but  only  to  discuss  habit  as  an 


THE  TEACHER  99 

educational  factor.     The  intelligent  teacher  can  investi- 
gate personal  habits  in  detail  for  himself. 

Training.  —  J.  G.  Fitch  has  said  with  truth  that  —  "  A 
true  teacher  never  thinks  his  education  complete,  but  is 
always  seeking  to  add  to  his  knowledge.  The  moment 
any  man  ceases  to  be  a  systematic  student  he  ceases  to 
be  an  effective  teacher."  And  David  P.  Page  urges  all 
who  propose  to  teach  "  to  recollect  that  the  very  basis 
of  fitness  for  teaching,  so  far  as  it  can  be  gained  from 
study,  is  a  broad  and  accurate  scholarship." 

A  teacher  who  has  not  had  academic  training  equiva- 
lent to  a  good  four  years'  high  school  course,  supple- 
mented with  professional  training,  is  deficient  in  scholar- 
ship for  grade  teaching.  A  teacher  who  has  not  had 
collegiate  training  equivalent  to  a  bachelor's  degree, 
in  a  reputable  institution,  and  this  supplemented  by 
professional  training,  is  deficient  in  scholarship  for 
high  school  or  academic  teaching.  By  a  reputable  in- 
stitution of  higher  education  is  meant  a  college  or 
university  which  is  in  its  requirements  at  least  equal  to 
the  standard  of  the  better  American  colleges.  Our 
educational  standards  are  low  enough  at  best,  and  it  is 
an  insult  to  the  teaching  profession  for  so-called  colleges 
which  are  in  reality  only  academies  —  second-class 
academic  institutions  at  that  —  to  pretend  to  confer 
degrees.  It  is  a  lack  of  professional  spirit  for  one 
claiming  to  be  a  teacher  to  offer  as  evidence  of  scholar- 
ship diplomas  from  such  institutions. 


100  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

Adequate  professional  training  for  a  teacher  includes 
a  knowledge  of  elementary  psychology,  history  of  edu- 
cation, philosophy  of  teaching,  methods  and  manage- 
ment, school  law  and  practice  teaching.  There  are 
many  excellent  teachers  who  have  neither  had  this  ideal 
training  nor  its  full  equivalent ;  but  they  have,  at  the 
expense  of  the  schools  in  which  they  were  employed, 
learned  the  science  and  art  of  teaching  by  experience. 
This,  however,  is  an  expensive  and  needless  method  of 
preparing  teachers. 

If  teachers  were  properly  prepared  before  they  were 
certificated,  teaching  would  rise  to  the  proper  position 
of  a  profession.  When  teachers  are  properly  prepared 
and  certificated,  it  is  worse  than  useless  to  have  them 
frequently  examined  in  order  to  grant  them  only  short 
lived  or  temporary  certificates.  A  license  to  teach 
should  be  a  license  for  life,  just  as  a  license  to  practice 
law  or  medicine  is  a  license  for  life.  When  teachers 
are  required  to  have  full  literary  and  professional  train- 
ing, then,  and  not  until  then,  the  state  should  issue  them 
permanent  license  to  practice  their  profession. 

Who  would  employ  to  prescribe  for  his  family  in  sick- 
ness one  who  had  never  graduated  in  a  medical  college 
or  received  professional  training  in  the  science  and  art 
which  go  to  make  up  the  profession  of  medicine  ? 
Answer,  no  one.  Who  would  intrust  an  important  case 
in  court,  involving  large  interests,  to  a  professed  lawyer 
who  had  never  graduated  in  a  law  school  and  served  an 
apprenticeship  ?  Answer,  no  one.  Who  would  intrust 


THE   TEACHER  IOI 

the  physical,  mental,  and  moral  well-being  of  all  the 
children  in  a  community  to  a  professed  teacher  who  had 
never  graduated  from  a  literary  or  professional  school 
or  served  an  apprenticeship  in  practice  teaching? 
Answer,  .  .  .  Reader,  consider  these  parallels  of  con- 
ditions in  important  professions  and  determine  for  your- 
self whether  teachers,  as  a  rule,  are  properly  trained  in 
our  own  country. 

Responsibility.  —  The  teacher  is  responsible  to  the 
school  for  his  personal  example.  First,  he  is  respon- 
sible for  his  personal  appearance.  No  teacher  should 
appear  untidy  in  his  dress.  It  is  not  necessary  that  his 
apparel  be  expensive,  or  that  his  dress  be  of  the  latest 
style ;  in  fact,  it  is  better  that  his  dress  should  be  plain ; 
that  it  should  attract  no  attention  on  account  of  being 
untidy  or  highly  fashionable.  Care  of  the  hair,  nails, 
and  teeth  should  not  be  forgotten,  as  these  small  details 
are  necessary  to  proper  personal  appearance. 

A  teacher's  moral  standing  in  the  community  should 
be  unquestionable.  There  is  no  more  potent  factor  for 
good  than  the  example  of  a  noble  Christian  teacher. 
There  are  many  acts  which  are  not  in  themselves  sins, 
but  which  are  distasteful  to  the  people  whose  children 
are  under  the  teacher's  care.  In  such  cases  the  teacher 
can  well  afford  to  refrain  from  these  questionable  acts. 
Paul  said,  "  If  meat  make  my  brother  to  offend,  I  will 
eat  no  flesh  while  the  world  standeth."  The  perform- 
ance of  a  certain  act,  the  enjoyment  of  a  certain  pleas- 


102  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

lire,  might  in  nowise  defile  the  teacher,  but  if  it  offend 
the  moral  sense  of  the  community,  or  any  considerable 
portion  of  the  community,  it  will  detract  from  the 
teacher's  usefulness.  When  Horace  Mann  sat  on  a 
stool  at  the  table  in  Antioch,  partaking  of  food  indif- 
ferently cooked,  some  one  said  to  him,  "  Mr.  Mann, 
how  can  you  endure  all  this  ? "  He  replied,  "  I  can 
endure  all  things  for  the  sake  of  these  young  people." 
The  conscientious  teacher  can  well  afford,  when  ques- 
tioned as  to  why  he  refrains  from  certain  "innocent" 
amusements,  to  say,  "  I  would  rather  refrain  from  these 
pleasures  than  to  forfeit  the  confidence  of  the  people  of 
the  district,  or  to  lessen  my  influence  over  the  pupils 
under  my  charge."  It  will  not  usually  be  necessary, 
however,  for  the  teacher  to  make  any  explanation.  He 
will  always  have  some  duties  to  perform  which  will  re- 
quire his  attention,  and  he  can  always,  with  due  courtesy, 
ask  to  be  excused,  and  keep  silent  regarding  the  con- 
duct of  others.  It  is  well  for  young  teachers  to  re- 
member that  when  gossip  goes  the  rounds,  silence  is 
golden. 

These  statements  do  not  argue  that  the  teacher 
should  not  have  positive  ideas  of  right  and  wrong,  or 
that  he  should  not  willingly  incur  opposition  and  criti- 
cism to  avoid  doing  wrong;  but  when  his  conduct  in- 
volves no  sacrifice  of  principle,  let  him  keep  it  in  accord 
with  the  ethical  judgment  of  the  best  people  in  the 
community. 

No  teacher  can  afford  to  criticise  another  teacher. 


THE  TEACHER  IO3 

He  cannot  afford  to  lower  himself  to  an  unprofessional 
plane.  The  professional  spirit  is  necessary  in  all  the 
members  of  the  teaching  body.  This  professional  spirit 
includes  more  than  a  proper  regard  for  the  standing  of 
fellow-teachers ;  it  includes  a  will  to  protect  the  stand- 
ing of  fellow-teachers  and  to  be  identified  with  the 
organized  effort  of  pupils  in  their  strife  to  attain  the 
ideal  conditions  from  the  real.  That  is,  the  profes- 
sional spirit,  in  addition  to  exerting  itself  for  the  good  of 
fellow-teachers,  impels  the  teacher  to  feel  that  he  is 
responsible  in  part  for  the  progress  or  the  failure  of 
his  pupils. 

"Education  can  only  develop  and  form,  not  create. 
It  cannot  undertake  to  form  a  being  into  anything 
other  than  it  was  destined  to  be  by  the  endowments 
originally  received  at  the  hands  of  nature.  Education 
can  only  develop  and  unfold ;  it  cannot  create  anything 
new."1 

The  teacher  has  also  the  responsibility  to  himself. 
He  knows  full  well  that  he  cannot  give  mind  to  pupils, 
or  develop  what  God  did  not  create.  It  is  well,  how- 
ever, for  him  not  to  publish  his  knowledge  of  the 
defects  of  children  under  his  charge.  Here,  again, 
silence  is  golden.  The  least  utterance  of  his  which 
would  tend  to  disparage  unfortunate  pupils  would  be 
repeated  and  possibly  multiplied.  Certain  it  is  that  it 
would  not  be  diminished.  There  are  seemingly  few 
exceptions  to  the  rule  that  the  teacher  becomes  the 

1  Rosenkranz. 


104  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

subject  of  conversation  and  criticism  wherever  pupils 
or  patrons  are  congregated.  These  discussions  of  the 
teacher  may  be  with  good  intent,  but  if  the  teacher  is 
indiscreet  enough  to  make  damaging  statements,  he  may 
be  sure  that  these  will  be  repeated  and  form  the  subject 
of  comment. 

Above  all  of  these  things  the  teacher  should  do 
what  he  believes  to  be  right,  and  refrain  from  doing 
that  which  he  believes  to  be  wrong.  He  should  per- 
form his  duty  as  he  sees  it  —  perform  his  whole  duty, 
and  then  if  results  do  not  follow  in  every  instance,  he 
should  not  worry.  He  is  not  primarily  responsible  for 
the  deficiency  in  the  mental  make-up  of  pupils  or  the 
disinclination  on  the  part  of  parents  to  cooperate  with 
the  school.  He  should  strive  to  retain  his  own  self- 
respect  ;  to  secure  his  own  approbation,  which  is  his 
greatest  reward. 


The  inspiration  of  the  school  is  the  presence  of  the  living  teacher 

—  W.  H.  Payne, 

None  but  true  ladies  and  gentlemen  should  be  employed  as  teach- 
ers. — John  A.  Vincent. 

Society  is  waiting,  calling,  earnestly,  anxiously,  for  men  and 
women  of  broader  culture  and  nobler  nature —  men  and  women  of 
quick  intelligence,  of  enlightened  understanding,  of  large  heart  and 
generous  impulse,  to  take  these  little  ones  by  the  hand  and  lead 
them  into  the  pleasant  ways  of  wisdom,  virtue,  usefulness,  and  hap- 
piness. —  George  Howland, 


PRACTICAL   PEDAGOGY  105 

The  teacher  should  be  patient,  full  of  hope,  of  a  cheerful  spirit, 
generous,  a  lover  of  children,  full  of  benevolence,  just,  a  lover  of 
order,  a  reverencer  of  God  and  his  laws,  conscientious,  firm,  with  a 
talent  to  command.  —  The  School  and  the  Schoolmaster. 


THE  SCHOOLMASTER'S  PRAYER 

Lord,  deliver  the  laddies  before  Thee  from  lying,  cheating, 
cowardice,  and  laziness,  which  are  as  the  devil.  Be  pleased  to  put 
common  sense  in  their  hearts,  and  give  them  grace  to  be  honest 
men  all  the  days  of  their  life.  —  Ian  Maclaren  in  "  Young 
Barbarians" 


CHAPTER  XII 

PUNISHMENT 

PERHAPS  no  ground  within  the  field  of  pedagogical 
research  has  been  trodden  with  more  trepitude  than 
this  which  we  now  propose  to  traverse.  Discussions 
by  pedagogical  writers  usually  include  discipline,  and 
contain  ample  advice  as  to  what  to  avoid,  without  giving 
directions  regarding  the  proper  course  to  pursue  when 
administering  correctives.  In  this  article  we  shall  dis- 
cuss not  only  the  fundamental  principles  which  underlie 
theories  of  corrective  discipline,  but  also  actual  condi- 
tions which  arise  in  everyday  school  life. 

Purposes  of  Order.  —  There  are  two  broad  general 
aims  in  securing  order  in  the  schoolroom ;  namely,  to 
secure  order  for  order's  sake  that  there  may  be  quietude 
to  promote  study  and  work,  and  to  cultivate  the  power 
of  self-direction  in  pupils,  that  they  may  become  com- 
petent to  adjust  themselves  to  their  environment  at 
present  and  in  later  years,  and  thereby  develop  into 
law-abiding  citizens. 

Rewards.  —  The  means  employed  to  secure  order  are 
usually  classified  as  hope  of  reward  and  fear  of  punish- 
ment, and  the  tendency  in  modern  government  is  from 

1 06 


PUNISHMENT  1 07 

the  latter  toward  the  former.  Those  who  lead  in  this 
advancement  follow  the  rule  that  all  just  punishments 
are  remedial. 

Nature  of  Punishments.  —  Among  savages  punish- 
ment rests  upon  revenge  —  getting  even  with  the 
offender.  Whenever  this  element  is  apparent  in  the 
punishment  inflicted  by  a  teacher,  it  is  evidence  of  a 
lack  of  refinement  and  a  sense  of  justice. 

Among  civilized  people,  the  history  of  punishment 
reveals  the  fact  that  whenever  school  punishments  have 
differed  materially  in  kind  from  punishments  inflicted 
in  the  best  homes,  or  by  the  state,  they  have  been  con- 
demned by  public  opinion.  To  illustrate,  when  crimi- 
nals were  placed  in  the  stocks  by  the  law,  it  was  not 
considered  improper  for  the  teacher  to  use  the  dunce 
cap  —  the  trouble  is  that  the  school  is  not  quite  keeping 
pace  with  the  state.  Again,  when  the  adult  delinquent 
was  punished  at  the  whipping  post,  the  delinquent 
pupil  might  expect  to  be  flogged  for  missing  three 
words  in  the  old  blue-backed  speller.  "  Lickin' "  and 
"  larnin'  "  went  together.  Query :  Which  was  the  first 
abandoned  —  the  whipping  post  for  adults  or  the  birch 
rod  in  school  ?  A  teacher  who  has  tact  enough  to  keep 
her  pupils  busy  during  study  hours  will  not  punish  her 
pupils  for  having  poor  lessons. 

It  is  noted  with  satisfaction  that  as  civilization  has 
advanced,  or  in  other  words,  as  intelligence  and  virtue 
have  increased,  punishments  have  become  less  and  less 


108  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

severe,  and  tend  more  and  more  to  become  remedial. 
It  is  also  noticeable  that  under  such  conditions  hope 
of  reward  operates  more  and  more  as  an  incentive,  and 
fear  of  punishment  is  less  and  less  used  as  a  means  of 
securing  obedience  to  authority.  Let  it  be  distinctly 
understood  that  hope  of  reward  as  herein  used  does 
not  mean  the  cheap  device  of  prizes  offered  for  good 
behavior,  but  the  reward  that  includes  self-approval,  as 
well  as  the  approbation  of  teacher  and  fellow-pupils. 
This  kind  of  reward  is  forcibly  illustrated  in  the  pupil 
government  instituted  in  many  progressive  schools. 

The  most  frequent  punishment  should  be  the  with- 
holding or  withdrawal  of  privileges  abused.  The  same 
means  may  be  employed  to  serve  as  a  reward,  for  when 
the  pupil  gives  evidence  that  he  will  not  abuse  present 
privileges,  other  privileges  may  be  granted  until  he 
becomes  free  rather  than  restrained  in  his  daily  work. 
This  use  of  privileges  serves  to  secure  proper  obedience 
to  authority  by  acting  at  once  as  either  a  fear  of  punish- 
ment or  a  hope  of  reward. 

Corporal  Punishment.  —  Teachers  agree  that  it  is 
sometimes  very  remedial  to  administer  corporal  punish- 
ment to  an  incorrigible  who  becomes  rebellious,  espe- 
cially if  this  is  the  corrective  to  which  he  has  been 
accustomed  at  home.  Note  that  the  term  used  is 
incorrigible  when  rebellious,  not  when  lazy  or  mis- 
chievous. If  there  is  open  rebellion  and  the  dignity 
or  the  authority  of  the  school  (not  the  dignity  of  the 


PUNISHMENT  109 

teacher)  is  involved,  do  not  hesitate ;  maintain  order  — 
you  cannot  do  otherwise.  But  do  not  use  drastic  means 
when  milder  means  would  serve. 

There  is,  however,  a  more  serious  condition  than  this 
in  our  schools ;  that  is,  when  a  pupil  is  habitually  unruly 
or  obstreperous,  when  he  is  not  really  a  fit  member  of 
the  student  body.  If  we  had  reform  schools,  such  a  case 
would  be  easily  adjusted ;  but  when  expulsion  means 
loss  of  all  culture  and  training,  it  seems  that  it  might  be 
justifiable  to  use  corporal  punishment  as  an  example, 
and  make  the  example  so  plain  that  other  students 
might  understand.  This  is,  of  course,  not  an  ideal  way, 
and  is  not  prescribed  for  ideal  conditions.  If  the  pupil 
may  be  sent  to  some  reformatory  school,  let  him  go ; 
but  if  he  must  be  cast  out  on  the  street,  remember  the 
words  of  Solomon,  and  govern  yourself  accordingly. 
Do  not  consider  this  a  privilege  to  be  rushed  into,  but 
as  an  unpleasant  duty  that  must  be  performed  in  order 
to  save  the  child.  Be  deliberate  and  judicious. 

It  is  not  argued  that  corporal  punishment  is  a  proper 
corrective ;  but  when  necessity  presents  two  evils,  —  ex- 
pulsion to  remove  a  bad  example  of  conduct  from  the 
student  body  or  corporal  punishment,  not  with  any 
certainty  of  remedial  effect  upon  the  pupil  punished, 
but  to  deter  others  from  following,  and  at  the  same  time 
keep  the  refractory  member  in  school,  that  he  may 
not  become  a  hardened  criminal,  —  then  choose  the 
lesser  of  two  evils,  and  the  lesser  appears  to  be  corporal 
punishment 


HO  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

Teachers  —  true  teachers,  one  and  all  —  wish  that 
corporal  punishment  could  be  abolished  in  the  schools, 
but  until  it  is  less  frequently  used  in  the  home,  and 
until  schools  of  correction  are  established,  it  will  be  use- 
less for  us  to  attempt  to  abolish  this  last  remedy  for  re- 
bellious incorrigibles.  But  let  teachers  remember  that 
it  is  better  to  prevent  wrongdoing  than  to  punish  for 
wrongs  done. 

"  Through  discipline  rather  than  instruction  the  teacher  renders 
it  possible  for  the  child  in  youth  and  the  adult  in  later  life  to  raise 
himself  to  higher  levels  of  .living." 

From  simply  commanding  he  should  proceed  to  explain  the 
reasons  of  his  commands ;  from  these  again  to  the  expression  of 
desires  and  the  manifestations  of  a  generous  confidence,  and  from 
these  to  the  frequent  option  and  discretion  of  the  child,  preparatory 
to  the  moment  of  giving  him  entirely  into  his  own  hands. 

—  William  T.  Harris. 

The  prevention  of  crime  is  the  duty  of  society.  But  society  has 
no  right  to  punish  crime  at  one  end  if  it  does  nothing  to  prevent  it 
at  the  other  end.  Society's  chief  concern  should  be  to  remove 
causes  from  which  crime  springs.  It  is  as  much  a  duty  to  prevent 
crime  as  it  is  to  punish  crime.  — Sarah  B.  Cooper. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

TEACHING  MAXIMS 

A  SITTING,  dreaming,  inactive  teacher  cannot  inspire 
pupils. 

Nothing  can  take  the  place  of  earnestness  in  the 
schoolroom ;  but,  to  be  effective,  it  must  be  genuine. 

Teachers,  especially  young  teachers,  talk  too  much. 
If  they  would  divide  their  words  by  two,  their  efficiency 
would  thus  be  multiplied  by  four. 

Telling  is  not  teaching.  When  a  pupil  has  exerted 
every  reasonable  effort  to  secure  the  desired  informa- 
tion, then,  but  not  until  then,  should  the  teacher  "  tell " 
him. 

A  teacher's  aim  should  be  to  keep  every  child  in 
school  and  to  create  and  maintain  an  interest  in  every 
class. 

The  personality  of  the  teacher  is  the  real  power  in 
every  school.  A  school  may  inspire  and  develop  men- 
tal and  moral  power  or  it  may  stupefy  and  destroy  them 
—  this  depends  almost  wholly  upon  the  personality  of 
the  teacher. 

in 


112  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

Try  to  inspect  the  tones  of  voice  you  use  habitually 
in  the  schoolroom. 

Do  not  fret  or  worry  —  power  works  with  ease ; 
weakness  frets  continually. 

To  repeat  the  answers  given  by  pupils  is  to  encour- 
age inattention.  Every  member  of  the  class  should  be 
held  strictly  to  account  for  each  answer  given.  Strict 
attention  in  the  recitation  should  become  a  fixed  habit. 

Teacher,  you  often  write  complaining  notes  to  par- 
ents. How  often  do  you  write  encouragingly  to  them  ? 
How  much  would  a  tired  mother's  heartache  be  relieved 
if  she  should  receive  a  note  from  you  stating  that  John- 
nie is  doing  well  in  his  studies,  and  that  if  he  continues 
so  to  do,  he  will  be  promoted  ? 

Do  not  promote  your  pupils  unless  you  are  quite  sure 
they  are  prepared  for  promotion.  Lack  of  thorough- 
ness is  the  crying  evil  of  the  common  schools. 

Do  not  try  to  get  all  the  pupils  into  the  high  school, 
or  into  higher  studies.  Nothing  will  float  you  so  buoy- 
antly at  first,  and  nothing  will  so  surely  sink  you  in  the 
end. 

Do  not  get  up  a  part  of  your  class  for  a  "  show  off." 
When  you  are  visited  by  the  superintendent  or  parent, 
let  every  part  of  your  school  be  shown  and  let  honest 
work  be  done.  Every  "  show  off "  is  a  reflection  on 
your  honesty  and  a  slander  against  your  school.  Your 


TEACHING  MAXIMS  113 

pupils  honestly  resent  it  and  they  charge  you  with  dis- 
honorable motives. 

The  teacher  who  does  not  have  a  place  for  every- 
thing and  everything  in  its  place  —  who  is  not  orderly 
in  his  personal  habits ;  who  does  not  keep  desk  and 
papers  in  perfect  order  —  has  no  moral  right  to  com- 
plain of  petty  disorder  in  pupils. 

A  teacher  who  allows  himself  to  be  tardy,  or  who  is 
not  habitually  on  time  with  all  his  work,  has  no  moral 
right  to  complain  of  irregularities  in  the  attendance  of 
pupils.  Such  a  teacher  should  correct  his  own  habits 
or  quit  the  profession. 

Teachers,  be  generous  with  kind  words.  Into  the 
lives  of  many  who  come  to  you  is  cast  much  gloom  and 
little  sunshine.  If  you  doubt,  go  to  their  homes  and 
you  will  soon  be  convinced  that  the  children  do  not,  as 
a  rule,  hear  too  many  kind  words.  Of  course,  justice 
must  often  be  stern  with  childish  willfulness ;  but  when- 
ever you  can,  let  justice,  when  meted  out  to  childhood, 
be  tempered  with  mercy. 

Do  your  pupils  wave  hands  and  snap  fingers  to 
attract  your  attention  in  class  ?  If  the  teacher  is  par- 
tially deaf  or  almost  blind,  this  performance  may  be 
necessary ;  but  if  the  teacher  can  see  and  hear,  these 
are  very  annoying  habits  and  certainly  are  not  indica- 
tive of  a  thoughtful  attitude  on  the  part  of  pupils. 


114  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

When  a  pupil  answers  in  an  indefinite  or  incorrect 
manner,  the  teacher  should  simply  say  again,  and  from 
that  the  pupil  should  know  that  his  answer  is  to  be 
revised.  Frequent  and  persistent  use  of  the  little  word 
again  will  accomplish  wonderful  results  in  diminishing 
the  number  of  careless  answers. 

Teachers  who  can  find  no  time  to  read  professional 
literature  or  attend  teachers'  institutes  should  be  re- 
lieved of  the  burden  of  teaching. 

Do  not  help  your  pupils  too  much.  If  they  ever 
walk  alone,  they  must  first  learn  to  stand  alone.  Help- 
ing them  to  help  themselves  is  teaching;  helping  them 
to  do  their  work  or  doing  their  work  for  them  is  not 
teaching.  "  He  who  avoids  exertion  must  remain  weak." 
You  do  them  a  kindness  if  you  see  to  it  that  they  learn 
their  lessons ;  you  do  them  an  injury  if  you  prepare 
their  lessons  for  them. 

Duty  well  done  is  the  only  true  claim  that  any 
teacher  has  for  reappointment,  and  is  the  only  require- 
ment that  a  school  board  has  a  right  to  make.  Every 
teacher  should  feel  that  there  is  a  tenure  of  position 
which  will  end  when  good,  honest  work  ceases.  Some- 
times school  boards  do  not  reemploy  teachers  known  to 
be  competent,  because  they  think  that  these  teachers 
are  too  "  high  priced."  When  such  conditions  arise, 
it  is  well  to  remember  that  nothing  is  so  costly  as  incom- 
petence, nothing  so  cheap  as  ability. 


TEACHING  MAXIMS  115 

Incompetence  is  seldom  reemployed  except  by  school 
boards.  Before  directors  conclude  to  drop  a  teacher, 
however,  they  should  be  very  certain  that  a  much  better 
teacher  can  be  secured.  Sometimes  the  incompetency 
is  not  known  to  the  directors.  If  such  is  the  case,  it  is 
their  own  fault,  for  they  should  inform  themselves  as  to 
what  is  being  done  that  they  may  vote  intelligently ; 
and  when  justice  demands  it,  they  should  not  hesitate 
on  account  of  business,  church,  political,  family,  or  any 
other  relations,  to  vote  against  the  retention  of  an 
incompetent  teacher. 

Would  you  employ  a  person  for  your  physician  who 
had  never  attended  a  medical  school,  read  a  medical 
journal,  or  spent  any  time  as  an  apprentice  under  a 
competent  physician  ?  Would  you  employ  as  the  teacher 
of  your  children  one  who  had  never  had  any  normal 
training,  studied  the  art  of  teaching,  or  served  an  ap- 
prenticeship in  the  schoolroom  ? 

What  an  average  pupil  accomplishes  in  school  de- 
pends upon  what  is  required  of  him  and  by  whom  the 
requirement  is  made. 

An  average  pupil  needs  the  stimulating  influence  of 
an  earnest,  working  teacher ;  he  needs  the  personal 
influence  of  an  aggressive,  exacting,  sympathetic  per- 
sonality. 

When  a  teacher  has  both  intelligence  and  devotion,  he 
should  be  let  alone  for  the  most  part.  The  wise  super- 


Il6  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

intendent  does  not  meddle.  It  is  his  business  to  know 
that  the  teacher  is  headed  toward  the  goal  and  is  going 
forward  with  reasonable  rapidity.  To  know  when  to 
keep  silent  is  one  of  the  highest  qualifications  of  a 
supervisor.  A  superintendent  is  not  necessarily  indif- 
ferent to  clear  and  positive  ways  of  arriving  at  results 
which  he  himself  would  follow  if  the  teaching  were  left 
to  him,  but  he  must  be  tall  enough  to  look  over  his  own 
fences,  and  see  that  his  is  not  the  only  road  to  educa- 
tional success. 

In  some  particulars  the  country  schools  are  the  most 
important  part  of  our  great  school  system.  If  we  are 
to  judge  the  future  by  the  past,  a  large  majority  of  the 
men  and  women  who  will  be  most  prominent  and  influ- 
ential in  the  nation  forty  years  hence  are  those  who  are 
laying  the  foundation  of  their  education  in  the  country 
schools  of  to-day. 

The  tactful  teacher  not  only  studies  the  pupils,  but  he 
studies  the  parents  as  well.  He  seeks  to  arouse  the 
interest  of  the  parents  in  the  school.  At  first  parents 
may  seem  indifferent,  but  if  you  observe  closely,  you 
will  find  that  the  interests  of  parents  are  centered  in 
their  children,  and  when  you  have  convinced  them  that 
you  are  interested  in  their  children  and  that  you  really 
are  helping  them  to  build  up  a  stronger  manhood  and 
womanhood,  then  you  will  have  secured  the  parents' 
cooperation,  and  will  have  assured  the  success  of  your 
school 


TEACHING   MAXIMS  1 1/ 

During  the  opening  week  of  school  is  the  opportune 
time  for  teachers  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  parents. 
If  an  opportunity  does  not  seem  to  present  itself  then, 
make  one.  A  personal  talk,  showing  your  interest  in  the 
children  and  giving  suggestions  about  the  best  methods 
for  each  individual  child  is  the  most  effective  plan. 
This,  however,  is  not  always  possible,  and  the  tactful 
teacher  will  either  "  find  a  way  or  make  one  "  that  will 
reach  the  parents  of  every  child  in  the  district. 

No  school  can  be  an  entire  success  unless  the  parents 
take  an  active  interest  in  all  that  concerns  it.  It  is  idle 
to  demand  or  expect  the  teacher  to  display  great  zeal  in 
school  work  when  the  parents  are  indifferent  in  regard 
to  the  school. 

Doubtful  Amusements.  —  Every  year  the  same  discus- 
sions are  had  as  to  what  amusements  are  proper  and 
what  are  improper  for  teachers.  With  the  awakening 
of  the  discussion  of  moral  and  religious  training  in 
school,  these  questions  are  likely  to  become  more  serious 
and  affect  the  standing  of  the  teacher  more  than  ever. 

Without  entering  into  this  discussion  with  reference 
to  specific  amusements,  we  wish  to  place  a  principle 
before  young  teachers  which,  if  followed,  will  keep  them 
free  from  censure. 

Young  teacher,  since  you  occupy  in  a  measure  the 
relation  of  parent  to  your  own  pupils,  it  is  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  your  influence  upon  their  moral  develop- 


Il8  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

ment  will  be  vital,  hence  you  should  be  careful  as  to 
your  conduct,  for  parents  will  scrutinize  and  perhaps 
criticise  your  actions.  When  in  doubt  as  to  any  given 
course  relative  to  "  questionable  amusements,"  do  nothing 
that  you  would  not  wish  your  own  parents  to  do. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

SELF-DIRECTION 

In  the  moral  life  we  govern  ourselves.  In  the  immoral  life  we 
are  governed  by  our  needs  and  passions.  —  Wagner. 

ELSEWHERE  in  this  work  it  has  been  said  that  the 
psychology  of  character  building  is  summed  up  in  four 
short  sentences :  "  I  see,"  "  I  like,"  "  I  wish  I  were," 
"  I  will  be."  There  still  remains  an  element  not  herein 
mentioned,  —  the  power  to  be,  —  the  power  to  direct  self 
in  the  performance  of  the  task  involved  in  character 
building.  The  will  is  necessary,  and  we  say  that  "  where 
there's  a  will,  there's  a  way,"  but  self-direction  is  the 
ability  to  find  the  way  quickly,  to  find  it  now,  —  not 
after  endless  effort,  —  to  find  the  most  direct  way.  This 
power  to  direct  self  according  to  reason  rather  than  ac- 
cording to  passion  and  necessity,  is  the  secret  of  strong 
character,  ability,  and  success. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  the  discussion 
of  the  principles  of  self-direction  involves  a  discussion 
of  theories  of  life,  and  hence  in  some  particulars  tran- 
scends the  province  of  purely  pedagogical  discussion. 
However,  such  phases  of  this  subject  as  in  no  wise 
appertain  to  the  work  of  the  teacher  and  pupils  in  their 
relation  to  the  school  process  will  be  omitted. 

If  we  consider  morality  as  it  really  is,  one  of  the 

119 


120  PRACTICAL   PEDAGOGY 

greatest  aims  in  education,  it  will  be  readily  granted 
that  the  discussion  of  this  subject  is  clearly  within  the 
teachings  of  pedagogy. 

The  State  Demands  the  Moral  Education  of  the  People  as  the 
Safeguard  of  Order,  Liberty,  and  Progress. 

—  Motto  of  the  Boston  Public  Library. 

It  is  from  this  view  point  that  this  subject  is  dis- 
cussed. Self-direction  means  more  than  self-control. 
Many  persons  are  capable  of  controlling  their  own  acts 
sufficiently  to  avoid  dangers,  but  incapable  of  leading 
into  an  unknown  region  of  difficulties,  and  must  rely 
wholly  upon  precedent  or  else  be  without  either  chart  or 
compass.  It  is  not  because  the  culprit  does  not  know 
the  law  protecting  private  property,  but  because  he 
could  not  direct  his  own  acts  under  temptation  to  steal, 
that  he  becomes  a  criminal. 

Organized  society  should  protect  its  immature  and 
weak  members,  and  direct  them  or  place  such  influences 
around  them  as  will  enable  them  to  be  self-directing. 
Children  are  not  always  able  under  trying  circumstances 
to  direct  themselves  according  to  their  ethical  judgment, 
and  one  violation  of  conscience  paves  the  way  for  an- 
other and  another  and  another. 

Schools  and  churches  are  institutions  that  supplement 
the  efforts  of  the  state  and  family  by  helping  in  the 
work  of  directing  the  children  until  they  are  capable  of 
self-direction,  but  sometimes  these  combined  agencies 
fail  to  reach  all  of  the  little  ones. 


SELF-DIRECTION  121 

The  things  in  society  or  in  everyday  life  that  tend 
to  hinder  man  in  his  efforts  to  be  self -directing,  to  live 
and  act  according  to  reason  rather  than  fall  under  the 
rule  of  passion  and  impulse,  are  called  vices,  temptations, 
and  evils,  from  which  he  desires  protection  and  from 
which  the  young  especially  should  be  protected  by 
society. 

Since  the  school  stands  for  character  building,  it  is 
concerned  in  building  up  all  forces  that  tend  to  develop 
character.  On  the  other  hand,  the  school  is  rightly 
opposed  to  all  forces  or  conditions  that  tend  to  destroy 
character  or  prevent  self -direction.  It  is  therefore  within 
our  province  to  discuss  some  of  these  conditions.  In 
order  to  make  the  discussion  more  concrete  in  its  illus- 
trations, we  shall  describe  some  hypothetical  cases  in 
which  organized  society  fails  properly  to  protect  those 
who  are  unfortunate  enough  to  be  placed  in  positions 
where  self-direction  is  difficult.  Our  first  case  is  only 
illustrative  of  the  thousands  who  through  the  ineffective- 
ness of  our  government,  including  schools,  are  not  sup- 
ported in  their  weak  efforts,  and  losing  the  power  of 
self-direction,  are  cast  out  from  the  companionship  of 
the  better  classes  of  people. 

This  is  one  case :  — 

An  Orphan.  —  Wandering  alone  in  want  amid  plenty, 
unheeded  among  the  city's  throng,  is  seen  the  frail 
body  of  a  motherless  little  girl.  She  remembers  "  Thou 
shalt  not  steal,"  which  mother  taught  her  to  say  before 


122  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

father  died,  —  but  she  is  hungry,  the  battle  is  soon  lost, 
and  self-direction  is  abandoned.  Twenty  years  pass 
by,  and  the  November  clouds  shed  the  only  tears  that 
moisten  the  grave  of  a  fallen  woman.  The  courts  re- 
corded her  infamy,  humanity  condemned  her  life,  and 
that  sentence  is  perhaps  just.  Disease  incident  to  vice 
completed  its  task,  and  at  the  grave  an  inquiring  passer- 
by wonders  how  the  Master  would  judge  the  people 
who  neglected  to  direct  t:nd  protect  the  orphan's  life 
until  self-direction  became  possible. 

A  school  for  orphans,  a  compulsory  school  law  pro- 
viding for  the  maintenance  of  indigent  pupils,  the 
sympathy  and  the  example  of  some  noble  Christian 
teacher,  in  this  instance,  might  have  added  a  useful 
member  to  society  and  reduced  the  number  of  tragic, 
joyless  lives. 

The  second  case  is  this  :  — 

A  Drunkard.  —  A  youth  in  a  throng  —  health,  wealth, 
and  friends  were  his.  He  knew  that  he  should  not 
"  look  upon  the  wine  when  it  was  red,"  but  the  law  of 
the  land  placed  within  his  easy  grasp  the  enchanting 
cup.  Self-direction  held  out  but  a  short  time  against 
legalized  temptation.  Twenty  years  later  time  wrote 
over  his  grave,  "  A  ruined  home,  a  wasted  life."  Men 
say  he  was  a  common  drunkard  —  but  the  old  man 
whose  son  he  was  is  thinking,  now  that  it  is  too  late. 
He  is  wondering  if  the  teacher  could  not  have  helped 
his  wayward  boy,  and  whether  there  was  enough  effort 


SELF-DIRECTION  123 

exerted  to  help  his  son  to  become  self-directing ; 
whether  he  himself  did  all  he  could  have  done ;  whether 
the  organized  society,  of  which  he  is  a  part,  is  blame- 
less. 

Gambling.  —  The  speculative  tendency  of  mind  so 
common  in  our  people  is  an  excellent  quality  when  the 
possessor  is  self-directing,  but  dangerous  when  his  life 
is  governed  by  passion  and  needs  instead  of  reason. 

There  is  an  element  of  chance  even  in  a  conservative 
business  enterprise.  There  is  an  element  of  chance 
in  every  undertaking,  and  this  unknown,  unknowable 
element  is  one  of  the  fascinations  which  are  offered  for 
effort.  Yet,  if  we  really  produce  value  by  our  effort,  the 
element  of  chance  is  far  less  than  if  we  wander  up  and 
down  seeking  for  hidden  or  uncertain  treasures. 

One  who  undertakes  to  earn  an  honest  living  for  him- 
self and  for  those  who  may  be  dependent  upon  him, 
has  entered  upon  his  plain  duty  and  realizes  the  solid 
comfort  of  self-approbation.  If  he  should  not  succeed 
abundantly,  he  may  experience  the  pain  of  want,  but 
not  the  pangs  of  a  guilty  conscience. 

When  desire  to  speculate  is  not  coupled  with  good 
business  judgment,  the  man  is  a  failure  in  business. 
The  degree  of  success  or  failure  may  not  always  be 
exactly  proportional  to  the  ratio  existing  between  de- 
sire to  speculate  and  good  business  judgment,  but  this 
ratio  is  approximately  correct. 

One  who  throws  aside  his  judgment,  depending  upon 


124  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

chance,  or  puts  aside  his  conscience,  depending  upon 
fraud,  would  have  no  consolation  if  unsuccessful. 

Now,  there  is  an  aim,  an  "  ultimate  Thule,"  to  which 
each  vocation  tends  —  failure  causes  it  to  fall  short  of 
the  mark  —  complete  success,  to  reach  its  objective 
point. 

The  laborer  sees  as  a  final  achievement  —  content 
and  competency  in  his  own  cottage  home.  The  soldier 
sees  glories  won  on  hard-fought  fields.  But  what  is  the 
highest  aim  of  him  who  is  a  gambler  ? 

Let  us  try  to  imagine  the  brightest  picture  that  can 
present  itself  to  a  gambler's  vision  —  the  so-called  "  gam- 
bler's paradise." 

On  the  northwest  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  in 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  spots  of  the  Franco-Italian 
coast,  lies  the  province  of  Monaco.  Eight  square  miles, 
its  area,  and  twelve  thousand  souls,  its  population. 
Nearly  or  quite  half  of  this  population  is  in  Monte 
Carlo  —  the  gambler's  ideal  resort.  Splendid  palaces, 
gardens  of  choicest  flowers,  marble  halls  flooded  with 
light  radiant  against  alabaster  and  gold,  floating  per- 
fumes filling  the  air  which  vibrates  with  sweetest  strains 
of  music.  This  is  the  "  gambler's  paradise."  All  its 
inhabitants  are  free  from  tax ;  all  live  in  luxury. 

Yes,  but  in  this  smallest  of  all  principalities,  in  this 
fairest  of  cities,  are  seen  more  sadness  and  more  despair 
than  in  any  other  land.  The  sweets  of  well-earned 
sleep  are  strangers  there.  Quietude  of  conscience,  con- 
tentment, and  self-approbation  never  stay  within  its 


SELF-DIRECTION  12$ 

borders.  Early  morning  drives  their  feverish  forms 
from  nights  of  vileness  to  sleepless  couches,  or  perad- 
venture  to  self-destruction.  When  they  assemble  in 
their  marble  hall  around  their  sumptuous  board  without 
appetite  for  their  first  meal,  —  their  twelve  o'clock  break- 
fast, —  they  ask  wearily  "  who  snuffed  the  candle  last 
night  ?  "  (meaning,  who  lost  all  and  committed  suicide  ?) 
And  ere  the  feet  of  those  who  bear  away  the  bodies  of 
these  self-destroyed  beings  have  returned,  there  are 
others,  dead  by  their  own  hands.  Such  is  the  end 
toward  which  those  who  abandon  self-direction  tend. 
Their  vocation  leads  contrary  to  the  dictates  of  their 
inner  self  —  they  have  abandoned  self-direction  until 
remorse  dictates  self-destruction. 

Clearly,  these  hypothecated  cases  indicate  that  there 
is  great  need  of  moral  guidance  for  the  young,  and 
certainly  the  schools  —  all  the  factors  of  education  — 
should  help  in  this  matter. 

The  Passions.  —  Of  the  eleven  passions,  love,  hate, 
desire,  aversion,  joy,  sadness,  hope,  despondency,  courage, 
fear,  and  anger,  which  education  seeks  to  control  or 
direct  in  youth,  at  least  two  of  the  concupiscible  pas- 
sions, love  and  joy,  and  two  irascible  passions,  hope  and 
courage,  are  more  responsive  to  religious  influence  than 
to  any  other  power. 

In  order  to  cultivate  these  virtues  and  in  teaching 
them  to  recognize  their  true  basis,  which  is  the  Christian 
religion,  it  is  not  necessary  to  inculcate  sectarian  doctrine. 


126  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

"  The  home  life  and  the  school  life  of  the  child  should 
prepare  him  for  transition  to  freedom  by  effective  train- 
ing in  self-control  and  self-guidance,  and  to  this  end  the 
will  must  be  disciplined  by  an  increasing  use  of  motives 
that  quicken  the  sense  of  right  and  make  the  conscience 
regal  in  conduct." 1 

Good  Moral  Character.  —  If  we  define  good  moral 
character  as  volitional  inclination  toward  the  right,  this 
provisional  definition  will  indicate  clearly  that  the  con- 
science is  to  be  quickened  by  pure  motives.  Some  of 
these  motives  are  religious  motives,  but  should  never- 
theless be  employed  by  the  teacher.  Now  the  first  step 
in  morality  is  to  avoid  doing  that  which  is  evil,  but  a 
step  that  is  also  necessary  is  to  do  good.  The  funda- 
mental conditions  of  a  moral  life  are  the  selection  of  a 
considerable  sphere  of  common  good  to  be  our  end  and 
aim,  and  an  exercise  of  self-direction  to  accomplish  that 
aim.  Morality  is  grasping  some  picture  of  large  good 
and  translating  it  into  fact. 

It  is  not  possible  to  judge  a  single  act.  To  say  that 
seeking  riches  or  reputation,  or  that  any  common  act, 
is  in  itself  evil,  is  erroneous.  The  size  of  the  ends  we 
see  and  serve  is  the  measure  of  our  own  soul's  dimen- 
sions, and  it  is  the  only  true  measure.  Some  ex- 
ternal act  may  be  good  for  one  man  and  bad  for 
another.  For  instance,  political  office  for  a  man 
who  has  solved  his  own  problems,  and  has  time  and 

1  Emerson  E.  White. 


SELF-DIRECTION  12JT 

capacity  to  solve  public  problems,  may  be  the  very  gate- 
way to  heaven,  while  to  the  office  seeker  who  is  aiming 
to  get  out  of  the  public  a  living  which  he  is  too  lazy  or 
too  incompetent  to  earn  in  private  employment,  this 
same  office  becomes  the  broad  and  easy  descent  into 
hell 

The  principles  of  self-direction  are  principles  of  life 
which  should  be  inculcated  in  the  lives  of  the  pupils 
and  exemplified  in  the  life  of  the  teacher.  A  life 
directed  by  inner  law  is  an  ideal  life.  If  pupils  could 
be  absolutely  self-directing,  it  would  be  an  easy  matter 
to  bring  them  from  the  real  to  the  ideal  state  of  devel- 
opment. Since  pupils  are  not  at  the  beginning  capable 
of  guiding  their  acts  according  to  reason,  it  becomes  the 
duty  of  the  teacher  by  precept  and  example  to  develop 
this  power  in  his  pupils. 

Educate  for  Simplicity.  —  The  first  duty  of  him  who 
exercises  power  is  humility.  A  teacher  who  forgets 
this  and  assumes  that  he  is  of  vast  importance  in  a 
community  is  liable  to  receive  a  rude  awakening.  Ma- 
terial wealth,  power,  position,  knowledge,  or  any  other 
acquisitions  are  blessings  if  they  do  not  serve  to  nourish 
pride  ;  but  if  they  do,  they  are  far  from  blessings.  It  is 
not  the  teacher  who  is  the  law ;  the  law  is  inherent  in 
the  school  process,  the  teacher  only  interprets  it.  No 
teacher  who  is  sensible  of  the  responsibility  resting 
upon  him  will  feel  or  appear  proud  or  vain.  No  teacher 
who  is  an  example  of  pride  can  hope  to  cultivate  sinv 


128  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

plicity  in  his  pupils.  As  a  teacher  strives  to  be  better 
he  becomes  more  humble,  but  in  this  he  loses  naught 
of  respect,  for  "  he  reaps  the  more  respect  in  that  he 
has  sown  the  less  pride." 

The  King.  —  The  teacher  who  learns  well  the  lesson 
of  self-direction ;  whose  life  is  ruled  by  reason ;  who 
realizes  that  "  pleasure  and  money  are  not  the  two 
wings  of  the  same  bird  "  ;  who  knows  that  egotism  is  a 
destroyer  of  pleasure ;  that  "  to  serve  is  to  shine  "  ; 
who  respects  all  men  and  reverences  God,  and  whose 
life  exemplifies  these  things,  is  an  ideal  teacher :  a  man 
who  can  —  a  king. 

He  may  occupy  some  unimportant  place  in  the  social 
fabric;  may  stand  in  the  most  obscure  place;  but  by 
his  life  he  is  pointing  humanity  to  the  right  life  and  he 
shall  have  his  reward  in  the  inner  consciousness  of  hav- 
ing done  right  because  it  is  right,  in  having  attained 
the  ideal  life.  Blessed  is  such  a  man.  He  who  assists 
childhood  to  attain  to  such  living  is  thrice  blessed.  He 
needs  no  pitying  because  the  wages  of  teaching  are 
small.  Wealth  to  him  is  not  essential  bee  ause  he  has 
learned  to  distinguish  what  he  has  from  what  he  is. 
He  needs  no  friends  in  high  places,  for  the  lowly  —  the 
little  children  —  are  his  friends.  He  needs  no  consola- 
tion from  man  because  his  lot  is  lowly ;  for  when  the 
great  Master  shall  stand  in  judgment,  he  shall  receive  a 
crown. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

THE  questions  herewith  submitted  in  no  sense  cover 
all  the  phases  of  pedagogy  treated,  nor  are  they  in- 
tended to  serve  such  a  purpose,  but  rather  to  assist 
teachers  who  must  study  the  subject  alone,  or  to  serve 
as  a  guide  to  teachers'  reading  circles.  The  teacher  of 
pedagogy  will,  of  course,  frame  such  questions  for  his 
use  as  will  call  for  a  more  careful  and  thorough  study 
of  this  subject. 

CHAPTER  I.  —  IDEATION 
Pages  3  to  8 

I.  Define   (a)  sensation;     (b)  percept;    (c)  memory 
image,  or  free  idea  ;  (d )  concept. 

II.  How   are    sensations   modified?      (b)  How  are 
they  formed  into  percepts  ? 

III.  Describe  fully  the  process  of  perception. 

IV.  How  are  memory  images  or  free  ideas  formed  ? 

V.  How  are  new  ideas  analyzed  ? 

VI.  Describe  the   two  currents   of   thought  arising 
from  immediate  sensations  and  from  representation. 

VII.  Define  (a)  attention;  (fr)  "divided"  attention. 

VIII.  Describe  fully  the  process  of  conception. 

IX.  Outline  the  process  of  ideation. 

X.  Illustrate  the  necessity  of  knowing  the  process  of 
ideation  before  attempting  to  teach. 

129 


130  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

CHAPTER  II.  — THE  RECITATION 
Pages  9  to  1 8 

I.  Give  two  prerequisites  of  intellectual  growth. 

II.  What  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  {a)  the  over- 
confident ?  (b)  the  self -distrustful  ? 

III.  Why  should   the    earlier   process   of    ideation, 
which  gathers  from  immediate  sensation,  be  emphasized 
with  pupils  in  the  lower  grades  ? 

IV.  "  The  pupil,  not  the  teacher,  should  do  the  recit- 
ing."    Why? 

V.  Enumerate  the  different  steps  in  the  recitation. 

VI.  What  is  meant  by  occupational  education  ? 

VII.  Explain  and  illustrate  the  Socratic  method  of 
questioning. 

VIII.  Why  should  the  assignment  of  lessons  usually 
be  made  at  the  beginning  of  the  recitation  ? 

IX.  "  Illustration  rather  than  definition   should  be 
the  rule."     Why? 

X.  How  should   the  teacher  bring  the  cultural  and 
the  practical  into  complete  harmony  ? 

CHAPTER  III.  — READING 
Pages  19  to  33 

I.  Why   should   the   words   in   primary   readers  be 
"household"  words,  or  words  with  which  the  child  is 
already  familiar  ? 

II.  Enumerate  the  several  formal  steps  in  teaching 
reading. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS  131 

III.  What  is  (a)  the  word  method?  (£)  the  sentence 
method  ? 

IV.  "  Correct  expression  depends  upon  correct  inter- 
pretation."    What  method  in  teaching  reading  is  based 
upon  this  principle  ? 

V.  Why  is  it  essential  to  teach  correct  bodily  posi- 
tions in  reading  classes  ? 

VI.  Why   should  we   emphasize    the    fifth   step   in 
reading  ? 

VII.  What  is  the  " dictionary  habit"?     Why  is  this 
so  important  ? 

VIII.  How  may  pupils  cultivate  the  power  to  judge 
of  literary  values  ? 

IX.  Give  the  value  of  each  of   th«  two  classes  of 
supplementary  reading. 

X.  Why  is  constant,  persistent  drill  in  reading  neces- 
sary ? 

CHAPTER  IV.  — ARITHMETIC 
Pages  34  to  42 

I.  What  are  the  purposes  in  teaching  arithmetic  ? 

II.  What  are  the  faults  in  methods  shown  by  the 
recitation  which  is  given  in  this  chapter  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  poor  teaching  ? 

III.  Why  are  the  fundamental  processes  so  impor- 
tant in  primary  grades  ? 

IV.  Why  are  "  model  solutions  "  of  so  little  value  ? 

V.  What  does  mental  arithmetic  emphasize  ? 

VI.  Give  the  forty-five  primary  problems  in  addition. 


132  PRACTICAL   PEDAGOGY 

CHAPTER  V.  — SPELLING 
Pages  43  to  47 

I.  Spelling  is  essentially  a  memory  study.     By  what 
several  means  are  images  of  words  impressed  upon  the 
mind  ? 

II.  Why  should  pupils  be  taught  the  rules  of  spelling  ? 

III.  Is  there  any  educational  value  in  requiring  pupils 
to  use  the  words  of  the  spelling  lesson  in  original  sen- 
tences ?     Explain. 

IV.  If  in  life  we  spell  only  when  we  write,  what  is 
the  value  of  oral  spelling  ? 

V.  What  is  (a)   simplified   spelling?    (6)    phonetic 
spelling  ? 

VI.  How  has  the  spelling  of  words  in  our  language 
been  changed  ? 

VII.  Give  (a)  a  rule  for  omitting  letters  from  a  word; 
(b)  for  retaining  letters  that  are  not  primarily  necessary. 

CHAPTER  VI.  —  GEOGRAPHY 
Pages  48  to  57 

I.  (a)  Define  geography.   (£)  What  features  of  geog- 
raphy should  be  emphasized  ? 

II.  How  should  the  subject  of  geography  be  intro- 
duced? 

III.  How  should  measures  of  distance  be  taught? 

IV.  Outline  a  series  of  lessons  in  mapping. 

V.  What  use  should  be  made  of   the   text-book  in 
primary  classes  in  geography? 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS  133 

VI.  What  is  the  scope  of  advanced  geography  ? 

VII.  What  is  meant  by  (a)  field  exercises?   (b}  by 
field  excursions  ? 

VIII.  How  would   you  emphasize  the  industries  in 
teaching  geography? 

IX.  Describe   a   rational   method  of   teaching   map 
questions. 

CHAPTER  VII.  — ENGLISH   LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 
Pages  58  to  63 

I.  In  teaching  elementary  English   what   ends   are 
sought  ? 

II.  Why  is  it  important  that  the  teacher  should  use 
correct  language  ? 

III.  Why  should  the  pupil  be  required  to  revise  his 
own  incorrect  expressions  ? 

IV.  Give  a  good  method  of  teaching  letter  writing. 

V.  What  is  the   value  of  having  pupils   reproduce 
given  selections  ? 

VI.  "Use  fixes  knowledge."      What  is  the  practical 
value  of  this  principle  in  teaching  grammar  ? 

VII.  What   parts   of   speech    should  be   made    the 
subject  of  special  study  ?     Why  ? 

CHAPTER  VIII.  — UNITED  STATES  HISTORY 
Pages  64  to  71 

I.   In  teaching  history  what  powers  of  mind  should 
be  developed  ? 


134  PRACTICAL  PEDAGOGY 

II.  Why  should  elementary  history  be  largely  bio- 
graphical  ? 

III.  What  is  meant  by  the  topical  method  in  teaching 
history  ? 

IV.  In  the  study  of  war  periods  what  points  should 
be  emphasized  ? 

V.  How  should  reviews  be  given  ? 

VI.  In  what  does  the  culture  value  of  history  consist? 

VII.  How   do   we   teach  patriotism   in   the   history 
class  ? 

CHAPTER  IX.  —  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES 
Pages  73  to  78 

I.  Show  that  the  school  is  an  organism. 

II.  What  are  the  factors  of  the  school  ? 

III.  Why   are   school   laws   inherent  in   the  school 
process  ? 

IV.  What  is  the   logical  relation    of    teacher    and 
pupils  ? 

V.  Show  that  rational  school  management  is  an  aid 
in  the  inculcation  of  the  principles  of  morality. 

VI.  Show  the  functions  of  all  social  organisms  in- 
cluding the  school 

CHAPTER  X.— CLASS  MANAGEMENT 
Pages  79  to  94 

I.  Should  the  teacher  follow  the  classification  made 
by  his  predecessor? 

II.  Give  the  length  of  recitation  in  each  of  the  eight 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  135 

grades  for  the  reading  recitation,  the  number  or  arith- 
metic recitation,  and  the  spelling  recitation. 

III.  What  are  the  advantages  of  class  instruction 
rather  than  individual  instruction  ? 

IV.  Discuss  the  Batavia  plan. 

V.  Describe  the  ideal  plan  of  arrangement  for  study 
and  recitation  periods  and  write  out  an  ideal  program 
for  a  country  school 

VI.  Describe  proper   schoolroom   tactics  in  calling 
and  dismissing  classes. 

VII.  What  are  proper  seat  habits  for  pupils  ? 

VIII.  Enumerate  three  improper  seat  habits  and  dis- 
cuss methods  of  correcting  each. 

IX.  What  means  should  the  teacher  employ  to  secure 
neatness  in  the  classroom  ? 

X.  Would  you  place  per  cents  or  ranks  on  pupils' 
report  cards  ?     Why  ? 

XI.  How  may  politeness  be  taught  ? 

XII.  Why  should  a  strict  sense  of  justice  character- 
ize every  act  of  the  teacher  ? 

XIII.  What  constitutes  active  patriotism? 

XIV.  How  is  altruism  greater  than  patriotism  ? 

CHAPTER  XI. —THE  TEACHER 
Pages  95  to  105 

I.  Describe  the  personality  of  the  ideal  teacher. 

II.  Why  should  a  teacher  possess  patience  and  sym- 
pathy ? 


136  PRACTICAL   PEDAGOGY 

III.  Why  should  a  teacher  be  optimistic,  patriotic, 
and  altruistic? 

IV.  Why  should  one  who  has  not  formed  good  bodily 
habits  not  be  employed  as  a  teacher  ? 

V.  What  academic  training  should  a  grade  teacher 
possess  ? 

VI.  What  professional  training  should  a  teacher  re- 
ceive ? 

VII.  Why  are  people  who  have  not  received  proper 
academic     and     professional     training     employed    as 
teachers  ? 

VIII.  For  what  is  the  teacher  responsible  to  (a)  the 
school  ?  (b)  the  community  ? 

IX.  Why  should  teachers  not  participate  in  question- 
able amusements  ? 


CHAPTER  XII.  — PUNISHMENT 
Pages  106  to  no 

I.  What  are  the  two  general  aims  in  securing  order 
in  the  schoolroom  ? 

II.  In  what  way  has  the  nature   of  punishment  in 
school   failed    to    keep    pace   with    the   improvement 
in   the   nature    of    punishment    administered    by    the 
state  ? 

III.  In  what  class  of  cases  is  corporal  punishment 
justifiable? 

IV.  How  may  the  withholding  of  privileges  and  the 
granting  of  rewards  aid  in  school  discipline  ? 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS  137 

CHAPTER  XIV.  —  SELF-DIRECTION 
Pages  119  to  128 

I.  What  is  self -direction  ? 

II.  Why  should  society  provide  for  protecting  youth 
from  errors  ? 

III.  Why  are  those  who   depend   upon   chance  or 
fraud  so  despondent  in  case  of  failure  ? 

IV.  To  what  does  the  speculative  tendency  of  mind 
lead  when  coupled  with  (a)  good  judgment  and  honesty  ? 
(#)  with  a  lack  of  conscience  ? 

V.  Define  good  moral  character. 

VI.  How  may  we  "  educate  for  simplicity  "  ? 


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